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NEW SERIES OF LATIN SCHOOL BOOKS, 



CROCKER & BREWSTER, 

No. 47 WASHINGTON STREET, BOSTON, 

Publish the following Books, which constitute a regular series of 
elementary Latin works designed for the use of Schools : — 

LallCl Grammar. A Grammar of the Latin Language, 
for the Use of Schools and Colleges. By Professor E. A. 
Andrews and Professor S. Stoddard. 

This Grammar has been adopted in most of the schools and colleges 
of this country. It is distinguished for its copiousness, its philosophical 
arrangement, and the scientific precision of its rules and definitions. 

The following works have been prepared by Professor Andrews, for 
the purpose of completing the series, of which the Grammar of Andrews 
and Stoddard is the basis : — 

Questions on the Grammar. Questions on 

Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. 

This little volume is intended to aid the student in examining himself 
in regard to the preparation of his lessons, and the teacher in conducting 
his recitations. 

Latltl ]Les§023§. First Lessons in Latin, or an Intro- 
duction to Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. 
This volume is designed for the younger classes of Latin students, to 
whom the larger Grammar might, at first, appear too formidable, and for 
all who, at any period of life, may wish to acquire an accurate knowledge 
of the first principles of the language. The work is complete in itself, 
containing the prominent rules and principles of the Grammar, with easy 
reading and writing lessons, serving to illustrate those principles. It is 
also furnished with numerous grammatical references, and a dictionary 
of the Latin words and phrases occurring in the lessons. 

Latin Reader. The First Part of Jacobs and Doring's 
Latin Reader, with a Dictionary and Notes; adapted to 
Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. 

The plan of this edition of the Latin Reader, which was in a great 
degree new, has been so highly approved, as to lead to its introduction, 
with suitable modifications, into all the subsequent volumes of the series. 
Instead of the grammatical notes usually found in works of this kind, 
numerous references are every where made to those principles of the 
Grammar which serve to explain the peculiarities of form or construction 
which occur in the lessons. The application of these principles is gen- 
erally left to the sagacity of the student, and by this means a wholesome 
exercise of his faculties is fully secured. 

lLaflSl. Exercises $ adapted to Andrews and Stoddard's 

Latin Grammar. 

The exercises contained in this volume are designed to illustrate the 
principles of the Latin Grammar in its various departments, and to render 
their application easy and familiar to the student. The plan and arrange 

1 



New Series of Latin School Books. 

ment of the work are such, that, under the direction of a judicious 
teacher, the student may commence the use of it almost as soon as he 
takes up his grammar, and continue it, at least as an occasional exercise, 
until he has finished his preparatory course. It is intended to smooth 
his way to original composition in the Latin language, both in prose and 
in verse. 

A Key to ILatlBl Exercises ; adapted to Andrews and 

Stoddard's Latin Grammar. 

This Key, containing all the lessons in the Exercises fully corrected, 
is intended for the use of teachers only. 

Viri Romae. The Viri Romas of Lhomond, adapted to 
Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar ; with Notes and a 
copious Dictionary. 

A careful perusal of this book, after the student has made himself 
master of the Reader, will constitute a good preparation for reading the 
easier Latin classics, which, without some such intermediate work, are 
commonly read under great disadvantages. It will at the same time ren- 
der him familiar with tlie principal characters and most prominent events 
of Roman history. 

Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War; with a 

Dictionary and Notes. 

The text of this edition of Caesar's Gallic War has been formed by 
reference to the best modern German editions. The Notes are principally 
grammatical, and are intended to afford that kind and degree of assistance 
which the student may be supposed to need at his first introduction to a 
genuine classic author. The Dictionary, which, like all the others in the 
series, has been prepared with great labor, contains not only the usual 
significations of each word, and its derivation, but an explanation of all 
those phrases which might otherwise perplex the student. 

Sailust. Sallust's History of the War against Jugurtha, 
and of the Conspiracy of Catiline ; with a Dictionary and 
Notes. 

The plan of this edition of Sallust is the same as that of the preceding 
work. The text of Cortius has, in many instances, been exchanged for 
that of Kritz or Gerlach, and its orthography is, in general, conformed to 
that of Pottier and of Planche, and is, consequently, in most cases, the 
same as is found in school editions of the other Latin classics. 

Ovid. Selections from the Metamorphoses and Heroides 
of Ovid ; with Notes, Grammatical References, and Exer- 
cises in Scanning. 

These Selections are designed as an introduction to Latin poetry. 
They consist of the most interesting fables from Ovid, with numerous 
brief notes explanatory of difficult phrases, of obscure historical or mytho- 
logical allusions, and especially of grammatical difficulties. To these are 
added such Exercises in Scanning as will serve fully to introduce the 
student to a knowledge of the structure and laws of hexameter anJ 
pentameter verse. 



New Series of Latin School Books. 

Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar has long since been intro- 
duced into the Latin School of the City of Boston, and into most 
of the other principal Classical Schools in this country. It is adopted by 
all the Colleges in New England, viz., Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, 
Amherst, Williams, Bowdoin, Waterville, Middleeury, Burling- 
ton, Brown University at Providence, Wesleyan University at Mid- 
dletown,and Washington College at Hartford) also at Hamilton Col- 
lege, New York, New York University, city of New York, Cincinnati 
College and Marietta College, Ohio, Randolph Macon College, 
Virginia, Mount Hope College, near Baltimore, Maryland Institute 
of Instruction and St. Mary's College, Baltimore, and the Univer- 
sities of Michigan and Alabama; and has been highly recommended 
by Professors Kingsley, Woolsey, Olmstead, and Gibbs, of Yale College; 
Professor Beck, of Harvard College ; President Penney and Professor North, 
of Hamilton College; Professor Packard, of Bowdoin College; Professor 
Holland, of Washington College ; Professor Fisk, of Amherst College, and 
by Professor Hackett, of Brown University ; — also by Messrs. Dillaway 
and Gardner, of the Boston Latin School ; Rev. Lyman Colman, of the 
English High School, Andover; Hon. John Hall, Principal of the Elling- 
ton School, Conn. ; Mr. Shaler, Principal of the Connecticut Literary 
Institution, at Sufheld ; Simeon Hart, Esq., Farmington, Conn. ; Pro- 
fessor Cogswell, of Round Hill School, Northampton; President Shan- 
non, of Louisiana College, and by various periodicals. 

As a specimen of the communications received from the above sources, 
the following extracts are given : — 

It gives me great pleasure to bear my testimony to the superior merits of the 
Latin Grammar lately edited by Professor Andrews and Mr. Stoddard. I express 
most cheerfully, unhesitatingly, and decidedly, my preference of this Grammar 
to that of Adam, which has, for so long a time, kept almost undisputed sway 
in our schools. — Dr. C. Beck, Professor of Latin in Harvard University. 

I know of no grammar published in this country, which promises to answer so 
well the purposes of elementary classical instruction, and shall be glad to see it 
introduced into our best schools. — Mr. Charles K. Dillaway, Master of the 
Public Latin School, Boston. 

Your new Latin Grammar appears to me much better suited to the use of 
students than any other grammar 1 am acquainted with. — Professor JVilliam 
M. Holland, Washington College, Hartford, Conn. 

1 can with much pleasure say that your Grammar seems to me much better 
adapted to the present condition and wants of our schools than any one with which 
I am acquainted, and to supply that which has long been wanted — a good Latin 
grammar for common use. — Mr. F. Gardner, one of the Masters Boston Lat. Sch. 

The Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard is deserving, in my opinion, of 
the approbation which so many of our ablest teachers have bestowed upon it. 
It is believed that, of all the grammars at present before the public, this has 
greatly the advantage, in regard both to the excellence of its arrangement, and 
the accuracy and copiousness of its information; and it is earnestly hoped that 
its merits will procure for it that general favor and use to which it is entitled. 
— //. B. Hackett, Professor of Biblical Literature in Newton Theol, Sem. 

The universal favor with which this Grammar is received was not unexpected. 
1» will bear a thorough and discriminating examination. In the use of well- 
oefined and expressive terms, especially in the syntax, we know of no Latin or 
Greek grammar which is to be compared to this. — Amer. Quarterly Register. 

The Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard I consider a work of great 
merit. I have found in it several principles of the Latin language correctly ex- 

E lamed which I had myself learned from a twenty years' study of that language, 
at had never seen illustrated in any grammar. Andrews's First Lessons I co» 



New Series of Latin School Books. 

sider a valuable work for beginners, and in the sphere which it is designed to 
occupy, I know not that I have met its equal. — Rev. James Shannon, President 
of College of Loui sian a. 

These works will furnish a series of elementary publications for the study of 
Latin altogether in advance of any thing which has hitherto appeared, either in 
this country or in England. — American Biblical Repository. 

We have made Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar the subject both of 
reference and recitation daily for several months, and I cheerfully and decidedly 
bear testimony to its superior excellence to any manual of the kind with which 
I am acquainted. Every part bears the impress of a careful compiler. The 
principles of syntax are happily developed in the rules, whilst those relating to 
the moods and tenses supply an important deficiency in our former grammars. 
The rules of prosody are also clearly and fully exhibited. — Rev. Lyman Cole- 
man, Principal of Burr Seminary, Manchester, Vt. 

I have examined Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, and regard it as 
superior to any thing of the kind now in use. It is what has long been needed, 
and will undoubtedly be welcomed by every one interested in the philology of 
the Latin language. We shall hereafter use it as a text-book in this institution. 
— Mr. Win. H. Shaler, Principal of the Connecticut Lit. Institution at Sutjield. 
This work bears evident marks of great care and skill, and ripe and accurate 
scholarship in the authors. It excels most grammars in this particular, that, 
while by its plainness it is suited to the necessities of most beginners, by its 
fulness and detail it will satisfy the inquiries of the advanced scholar, and will 
be a suitable companion at all" stages of his progress. We cordially commend 
it to the student and teacher. — Biblical Repository. 

Your Grammar is what T expected it would be — an excellent book, and just the 
thing which was needed. We cannot hesitate a moment in laying aside the 
books now in use, and introducing this. — Rev. J. Penney, D. D., President of 
Hamilton College, JS'eio York. 

Your Grammar bears throughout evidence of original and thorough investiga- 
tion and sound criticism. I hope, and doubt not. it will be adopted in our schools 
and colleges, it being, in my apprehension, so far as simplicity is concerned, on 
the one hand, and philosophical views and sound scholarship on the other, far 
preferable to other grammars 5 a work at the same time highly creditable to your- 
selves and to our country. — Professor A. Packard, Bowdoin College, Maine. 

This Grammar appears to me to be accommodated alike to the wants of the 
new beginner and the experienced scholar, and, as such, well fitted to supply 
what has long been felt to be a great desideratum in the department of classical 
learning. — Professor S. North, Hamilton College, New York. 

From such an examination of this Grammar as I have been able to give it, 1 
do not hesitate to pronounce it superior to any other with which I am acquainted. 
I have never seen, any where, a greater amount of valuable matter compressed 
within limits equally harrow.— Won. John Hall Prin. of Ellington School, Conn. 
We have no hesitation in pronouncing this Grammar decidedly superior to 
any now in use. — Boston Recorder. 

I am ready to express my great satisfaction with your Grammar, and do not 
hesitate to say. that 1 am better pleased with such portions of the syntax as 1 
have perused", than with the corresponding portions in any other grammar with 
which I am acquainted. — Prof ssor N. TT~. Fiskc, Amherst College, Mass. 

I know of no grammar in the Latin language so well adapted to answer the 
purpose for which it was designed as this. The book of Questions is a valuable 
attendant of the Grammar. — Simeon Hart, Esq., Farmington, Co?in. 

This Grammar has received the labor of years, and is the result of much re 
flection and experience, and mature scholarship. As such, it claims the atten- 
tion of all who are interested in the promotion of sound learning. — A'. Y. (Jus. 
This Grammar is an original work. Its arrangement is philosophical, and its 
rules clear and precise, beyond those of any other grammar we have seen.— • 
Portland Christian Mirror. 

4 



GRAMMAR 



LATIN LANGUAGE; 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



Ef AT ANDREWS AND S. STODDARD 



. 

The Eighteenth Edition, 

CAREFULLY REVISED AND CORRECTED, 
By E. A. ANDREWS, LL.D. 



BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED BY CROCKER AND BREWSTER, 

47 Washington Street. 

For sale l>y tlie Booksellers in New York, Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, and other Cities. 



1849. /$/. A 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, 

Bv Crocker and Brewster, 

In the Clerk's Office of the Distinct Court of Massachusetts. 



stereotyped at the 
b06t0n type and stereotype foundry- 



PREFACE. 



The Grammar here presented to the public originated in a 
design, formed several years since, of preparing a new edition 
of Adam's Latin Grammar, with such additions and corrections 
as the existing state of classical learning plainly demanded. 
We had not proceeded far in the execution of this purpose, 
before we were impressed with the conviction, which our subse- 
quent researches continually confirmed, that the defects in that 
manual were so numerous, and of so fundamental a character, 
that they could not be removed without a radical change in the 
plan of the work. 

Since the first publication of that Grammar, rapid advances 
have been made in the science of philology, both in Great 
Britain and upon the continent of Europe. In the mean time, 
no corresponding change has been made in that work, and, 
after the lapse of half a century, it still continues, in its origi- 
nal form, to occupy its place in most of the public and private 
schools in this country. For this continuance of public favor 
it has been indebted, partly to a greater fulness of detail than 
was found in the small grammars which it has superseded, partly 
to the reluctance so commonly felt to lay aside a manual with 
which all are familiar ; but, principally, to the acknowledged 
fact, that the grammars which have been proposed as substitutes, 
not excepting even those translated from the German, though 
often replete with philosophical views of the highest interest, 
have still been destitute of many of the essential requisites of a 
complete introduction to the Latin language. 

Instead, therefore, of prosecuting our original purpose, we at 
length determined to mould our materials into a form corre- 



IV PREFACE. 

sponding with the advanced state of Latin and Greek philology. 
With this view, we have devoted much time to a careful exami- 
nation of such works as promised to afford us the most material 
assistance. From every source, to which we could gain access, 
we have drawn whatever principles appeared to us most impor- 
tant. These we have sometimes expressed in the words of the 
author from whom they were derived ; but, in general, we have 
preferred to exhibit them in our own language. The whole, 
with the exception of three or four pages only, has been sent to 
the compositor in manuscript. 

The limits of a preface will allow us to notice but a few of 
the more prominent peculiarities of the following work. 

To insure a correct and uniform pronunciation of the Latin 
language, our experience had satisfied us, that rules more copi- 
ous and exact than any now in use were greatly needed. In 
presenting the rules of orthoepy contained in this Grammar, it 
is not our object to introduce innovation, but to produce uni- 
formity. This we have endeavored to effect by exhibiting, in as 
clear a light as possible, the principles of pronunciation adopted 
in the schools and universities of England, and in the principal 
colleges of this country. If these rules are regarded, the stu- 
dent can seldom be at a loss respecting the pronunciation of any 
Latin word. 

As an incorrect pronunciation may generally be referred to 
the errors into which the student is permitted to fall while learn- 
ing the paradigms of the grammar, we have endeavored to pre- 
vent the possibility of mistake in these, by dividing the words 
according to their pronunciation, and marking the accented 
syllable. If the instructor will see that the words are at first 
pronounced as they are set down in the paradigms, he will not 
afterwards be compelled to submit to the mortifying labor of 
correcting bad habits, when they have become nearly inveterate. 
Wherever a Latin word is introduced, its quantity is carefully 
marked, except in those cases in which it may be determined 
by the general rules in the thirteenth section. As the para- 
digms are divided and accented, it may not, in general, be expe- 



PREFACE. V 

dient for the student to learn the rules of pronunciation at his 
entrance upon the study of the Grammar. It will be sufficient 
for him, at first, to understand the principles of accentuation in 
the fourteenth and fifteenth sections. The remaining rules he 
can gradually acquire as he proceeds in his study of the lan- 
guage. 

The materials for the subsequent departments of the Gram- 
mar have been drawn from various sources, most of which need 
not be particularly specified. It is proper, however, that, in this 
place, we should, once for all, acknowledge our obligations to 
the Grammars of Scheller, Zumpt, and Grant, and to the Dic- 
tionaries of Gesner and Facciolatus. 

The paradigms of Adam's Grammar, as being generally known, 
have been retained, excepting a few, which were liable to valid 
objections. Penna was rejected, because, in the sense assigned 
to it of a pen, it is totally destitute of classical authority. In- 
stead of this, musa, which is found in the older grammars, has 
been restored. In the third declension, several additional exam- 
ples have been introduced. 

Under adjectives, the different kinds of comparison, and the 
mode of forming each, have been explained. The terminations 
of the comparative and superlative are referred, like every other 
species of inflection, to the root of the word. 

In treating of the pronouns, we have aimed so to arrange the 
several classes, as to exhibit their peculiar characteristics in a 
clear and intelligible manner. 

The compounds of sum are given in connection with that 
verb. In the second conjugation, moneo has been substituted 
for docco, as the latter is irregular in its third root. In the 
third conjugation, also, rego has been taken instead of lego, as 
the latter is irregular in its second root, and, from its peculiar 
signification, cannot properly be used in the first and second 
persons of the passive voice. 

In every conjugation except the first, the active and passive 
voices have been so arranged as to show the relation of their 
corresponding tenses. 



VI PREFACE. 

The derivation of the several parts of the verb from the root 
is exhibited in a peculiar manner, and such as we have found 
in practice to render the varieties of termination, both in regu- 
lar and irregular verbs, peculiarly easy to be retained in memory. 
Every part of the verb is shown to be naturally derived, either 
immediately or mediately, from its primary root. The mode of 
forming the secondary roots, and the terminations to be added 
to them and to the primary root respectively, in order to form 
the various tenses, are fully exhibited. 

In each conjugation, those verbs whose second and third roots 
are either irregular or wanting, are arranged alphabetically, in 
order to render a reference to them as easy as possible. 

In constructing the tables of verbs, and occasionally in other 
parts of etymology, we have derived essential aid from Hickie's 
Grammar, and we trust that the information resulting from his 
researches, in relation to the parts of verbs in actual use, will 
be esteemed not only curious but important. To a considerable 
extent, we have verified his statements by our own investiga- 
tions ; in consequence of which, however, some changes have 
been made in the parts of certain verbs as exhibited by him. 

The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly 
from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences ; 
and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly 
familiar with the sections relating to subject and predicate, and 
should be able readily to analyze sentences, whether simple 
or compound, and to explain their structure and connection. 
For this purpose, it is generally expedient to begin with simple 
English sentences, and to proceed gradually to such as are more 
complex. When in some degree familiar with these, he will be 
able to enter upon the analysis of Latin sentences. This 
exercise should always precede the more minute and subsidiary 
labor of parsing. If the latter be conducted, as it often is, 
independently of previous analysis, the principal advantage to be 
derived from the study of language, as an intellectual exercise, 
will inevitably be lost. The practice which we would respectfully 
recommend is that which we have presented at the close of 



PREFACE. VU 

Syntax under the head " Analysis." When language is studied 
in this way, it ceases to be a tiresome and mechanical employ- 
ment, and not only affords one of the most perfect exercises of 
the intellectual faculties, but, in a short time, becomes a most 
agreeable recreation. 

In the syntax of this Grammar, it is hoped that nothing essen- 
tial which is contained in larger grammars, has been omitted. 
Our object has been in this, as in other parts of the work, to 
unite the comprehensive views and philosophical arrangement of 
the German philologists with the fulness and minuteness of the 
English grammarians. In no German grammar that we have 
seen, is the language" well adapted to the capacity of the younger 
classes of students, or such as to be conveniently quoted in the 
recitation-room. These defects we have endeavored to remedy, 
by expressing the rules of syntax in as simple and precise 
language as possible. In the arrangement of the syntax, we 
have followed the order of the various cases and moods, so that 
whatever relates to each subject will be found under its appro- 
priate head, and the connection of different subjects is pointed 
out by references from one part to another. In the distribution 
of the subo:dinate parts, we have endeavored to exhibit in the 
clearest manner their mutual relation and dependence. 

The sections relating to the use of moods have received par- 
ticular attention, as it is in this part, perhaps, more than in any 
other, that the common grammars are deficient. Upon this 
subject, in addition to the sources before enumerated, we have 
derived important aid from Carson's treatise on the relative, and 
from Crombie's Gymnasium. 

The foundation of the prosody which is here presented, is to 
be found in the more extended treatises of Carey and Grant, and 
in that contained in Rees's Cyclopaedia. From various other 
sources, also, occasional assistance has been derived; but in 
this, as in every other part of the Grammar, we have given 
to the materials such a form as seemed best adapted to our 
purpose. 

Extended discussions of grammatical principles we have 



Vlll PREFACE. 

every where omitted, as foreign to the design of our work, but 
have endeavored to present the results of such discussions in 
the manner most likely to serve the practical purposes of the 
student. 

A prominent object in the composition of this Grammar, and 
one which we have endeavored to keep constantly before our 
minds, was the introduction of greater precision in rules and 
definitions, than is usually to be found in works of this kind. 
To this feature of our work we would respectfully invite the 
reader's attention. It will be found, if we mistake not, that, in 
the language of many of the grammars in common use, there 
is such inaccuracy, as well as indefiniteness, that many parts, if 
taken independently of examples, and of the explanations of 
the teacher, would be wholly unintelligible. This is especially 
the case in the rules of syntax. Take, for example, the com- 
mon rule, " A verb agrees with its nominative in number and 
person." Whether the nominative intended is that which, in 
construction, precedes, or that which follows, the verb, or, 
in other words, whether it is the subject-nominative, or the 
predicate-nominative, is left undetermined. 

So in the rule, " One substantive governs another signifying 
a different thing in the genitive," there is no intimation that the 
two substantives have any relation whatever to each other ; it is 
not even required that they shall stand in the same proposition. 
The only condition is, that they shall signify different things. 
Any one substantive, therefore, governs any other substantive 
in the genitive, whenever and however used, ond, in its turn, is 
governed in like manner by that other, provided they signify 
different things. 

In like manner the rule, " One verb governs another in the 
infinitive," contains no limitation or restriction of any kind. 
The least that the student can be expected to infer from it 
is, that any verb may, in certain circumstances, govern an 
infinitive ; and this inference we know has actually been made 
by some respectable teachers. One who has formed such a 
conclusion may well be surprised to find that the number of 



PREFACE. IX 

verbs followed by the infinitive without a subject-accusative, is 
very small, and that no inconsiderable portion of the verbs of 
the language cannot, under any circumstances whatever, govern 
an infinitive, cither with or without such accusative. 

Rules of this kind appear to have been intended not to lead 
the student to a knowledge of the structure of the language, 
but to be repeated by him after the construction has been fully 
explained by his teacher. Of themselves, therefore, they may 
be said to teach nothing. Similar remarks might be made 
respecting a very large proportion of the common rules of 
syntax, as will be obvious to any one who will take the trouble 
of subjecting them to a rigid scrutiny. As the object of syntax 
is to exhibit the relations of words and propositions, no rule 
can be considered as otherwise than imperfect, which leaves the 
nature and even the existence of those relations wholly inde- 
terminate. An active verb, for example, may, in general, be 
followed by at least three different cases, in order to express 
what are sometimes called its immediate and its remote objects, 
and also some attendant circumstance of time, place, instru- 
ment, &c. To say, then, that " A verb signifying actively 
governs the accusative," can give no precise information, unless 
we specify which of its relations is denoted by this case. 

The fault to which we have now alluded, seems, in many 
cases, to have arisen from an excessive desire of brevity, and 
to have been perpetuated by the aversion so commonly felt to 
change a form of phraseology to which, however defective in 
its original, custom has at length attached a definite meaning. 
In cases of this kind, we have not scrupled to make such 
changes, both in rules and definitions, as the nature of the case 
seemed to us to demand ; but, in doing this, we have not for- 
gotten the importance of uniting brevity with precision. 

In regard to the manner in which this work was composed, 
we would merely remark, that the labor has been in every re- 
spect a mutual one. The hand and mind of each have been 
repeatedly employed upon every part, until it has at length 
become impossible even for ourselves to recollect the share 






X PREFACE. 

which each has had in bringing the work to its present state. 
Of each and every part, therefore, it may be safely said that 
we are the joint authors ; and hence, whatever of praise or 
blame may attach to any part, must be shared equally by each. 
In commending to the patronage of the public a work on 
which so large a portion of our thoughts has been for several 
years employed, we will not pretend indifference to its fate. It 
was begun under a conviction, derived from the experience of 
many years in teaching the ancient languages, that a Latin 
grammar, different in many respects from any with which we 
were acquainted, was greatly needed in our schools and colleges. 
Had we contemplated the amount of labor which its execution 
would impose upon us, we might probably have shrunk from 
the attempt, encumbered as we were with other employments. 
At every step, however, our labor has been cheered by the 
greater familiarity which we have acquired with the best of the 
Roman writers, and by the hope that the result might be of 
service to others in forming an acquaintance with the same 
immortal authors. Should the verdict of an enlightened public 
decide, that, in this respect, we have been successful, we shall 
feel ourselves fully recompensed for our labor, in the satisfac- 
tion of having contributed, in however humble a degree, to 
promote the cause of classical literature, and consequently of 
sound learning, among our countrymen. 

Boston, April 8, 1836. 

ADVERTISEMENT TO THE EIGHTEENTH EDITION. 

The present edition has been revised in every part, and the errors noticed 
in the former editions carefully corrected. A few sections have been remod- 
eled, and occasional deficiencies in other parts supplied. In making these 
corrections, the editor, now the sole surviving author of the original work, 
has been aided by memoranda left by his lamented friend and associate, Pro- 
fessor Stoddard, and by the communications of several literary gentlemen, 
particularly by those of his valued friend, Francis Gardner, Esq., one of the 
masters of the Boston Latin School, to whom he is most happy to acknowl- 
edge his numerous obligations in this respect. He would also avail himself 
of this opportunity to express his gratitude to the public for the favor so 
liberally extended to the original work, and his hope that in its present form 
it will meet with similar indulgence. 

July, 1819. E. A. A. 



CONTENTS. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Division of letters 2 

Diphthongs 2 

Punctuation 2 

ORTHOEPY. 

Sounds of the letters 3 

of the vowels 3 

of the diphthongs 4 

of the consonants 5 

Quantity of penultimate and final 

syllables 6 

Accentuation 7 

Division of words into syllables. . 8 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Nouns 10 

Gender 11 

Number 14 

Cases 14 

Declensions 14 

First declension 16 

Greek nouns 17 

Second declension 18 

Greek nouns 21 

Third declension 21 

Rules for the gender 24 

oblique cases. 27 

Greek nouns 36 

Fourth declension 37 

Fifth declension 38 

Declension of compound nouns 39 

Irregular nouns 39 

Variable nouns 40 

Defective nouns 41 

Redundant nouns 47 

Derivation of nouns 49 

Composition of nouns 53 

Adjectives 54 

Adjectives of the first and sec- 
ond declension 55 

Adjectives of the third declen- 
sion 57 

Rules for the oblique cases . 60 

Irregular adjectives 61 

Defective adjectives 61 

Redundant adjectives 62 

Numeral adjectives 63 

Comparison of adjectives .... 67 



Page. 

Irregular comparison 69 

Defective comparison 70 

Derivation of adjectives 72 

Composition of adjectives .... 74 

Pronouns 75 

Substantive pronouns 76 

Adjective pronouns 77 

Demonstrative pronouns. .. 77 

Intensive pronouns 79 

Relative pronouns 79 

Interrogative pronouns .... 80 

Indefinite pronouns 82 

Possessive pronouns 83 

Patrial pronouns 83 

Verbs 83 

Moods 85 

Tenses 85 

Numbers 87 

Persons 87 

Participles, gerunds, and su- 
pines 88 

Conjugation 89 

Table of terminations 91 

Sum 93 

First conjugation 96 

Second conjugation 102 

Third conjugation 105 

Fourth conjugation Ill 

Deponent verbs 114 

Remarks on the conjugations 116 
Periphrastic conjugations... 117 
General rules of conjugation 119 
Formation of second and third 

roots 120 

First conjugation 120 

Second conjugation 124 

Third conjugation 126 

Fourth conjugation 133 

Irregular verbs * . . . . 135 

Defective verbs 139 

Impersonal verbs 141 

Redundant verbs 143 

Derivation of verbs 146 

Composition of verbs 147 

Adverbs 149 

Derivation of adverbs 151 

Composition of adverbs 153 

Comparison of adverbs 154 

Prepositions 154 

Prepositions in composition . 155 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 






Conjunctions 157 

Interjections 159 

SYNTAX. 

Subject 160 

Predicate 162 

Sentences 163 

Apposition 164 

Adjectives 166 

Relatives 169 

Demonstratives, &c 172 

Reflexives 175 

Nominative 176 

Subject-nominative and verb 176 

Predicate-nominative 181 

Genitive 182 

Genitive after nouns 182 

after partitives .... 186 

after adjectives . . . 188 

after verbs 190 

of place 194 

after particles 195 

Dative 195 

Dative after adjectives 195 

after verbs 197 

after particles 201 

Accusative 202 

Accusative after verbs 202 

after prepositions 207 

of time and space 208 

■ of place 209 

after adverbs and 

interjections 209 

Subject-accusative 210 

Vocative 210 

Ablative 211 

Ablative after prepositions . . 211 

after certain nouns, 

adjectives, and verbs 212 

— — of cause, &c 213 

of price 217 

of time 217 

— of place 218 

after comparatives . 219 

absolute 222 

Connection of tenses 223 

Indicative mood 225 

Subjunctive mood 226 

Protasis and apodosis 228 

Subjunctive after particles. . 229 

after qui. ...... 232 

— — in indirect ques- 

235 



tions 



clauses 



in intermediate 



235 



Page , 

Imperative mood 237 

Infinitive mood 237 

Participles . . . 243 

Gerunds and gerundives 245 

Supines 247 

Adverbs 249 

Conjunctions. 250 

Arrangement 251 

Arrangement of words 251 

of clauses 254 

Analysis 254 



PROSODY. 

Quantity 

General rules 

Special rules 

First and middle syllables. 

Derivative words 

Compound words 

Increment of nouns. . . . 

Increment of verbs 

Penultimate and antepe- 
nultimate syllables. . . 

Final syllables 

Versification 

Feet 

Metre 

Verses 

Figures of prosody. 

Arsis and thesis 

Cassura 

Different kinds of metre 

Dactylic metre 

Anapsestic metre 

Iambic metre 

Trochaic metre 

Choriambic metre 

Ionic metre 

Compound metres 

Combination of verses 

Horatian metres 

Key to the odes of Horace . . 



259 
259 
262 
262 
262 
263 
265 
268 

270 
275 
279 
279 
280 
281 
282 
284 
285 
286 
286 
288 
289 
290 
291 
292 
293 
293 
294 
296 



APPENDIX. 

Grammatical figures 298 

Tropes and figures of rhetoric . 301 
Roman mode of reckoning time 304 
money 3< 



Abbreviations 307 

Different ages of Roman litera- 
ture.... 308 

Writers of the different ages . . 308 

INDEX 311 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



§ 1. Latin Grammar teaches the principles of the 
Latin Language. 

These relate, 

1. To its written characters; 

2. To its pronunciation ; 

3. To the classification and derivation of its words ; 

4. To the construction of its sentences ; 

5. To the quantity of its syllables, and its versification. 

The first part is called Orthography ; the second, Orthoepy ; 
the third, Etymology; the fourth, Syntax; and the fifth, Prosody. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

<§> 2. Orthography treats of the letters, and other char- 
acters of a language, and the proper mode of spelling 
words. 

The letters of the Latin language are twenty-four. They 
have the same names as the corresponding characters in Eng- 
lish. They are A, a; B, b ; C, c; D, d; E, e; F, f; G, g; 
H, h; I, i; J, j ; L, 1; M,m; N, n; 0,o; P, p; a, q; R, r; 
S, s; T,t; U, u; V,v; X,x; Y,y; Z, z. 

/ and j were anciently but one character, as were likewise u and v. 

W is not found in Latin words, and the same is true of k, except at the 
beginning of a few words whose second letter is a; and, even in these, 
most writers make use of c. 

Y and z are found only in words derived from the Greek. 

II } though called a letter, only denotes a breathing, or aspiration. 



The consonants are 
divided into 



DIPHTHONGS. PUNCTUATION. «§> 3-5. 

DIVISION OF LETTERS. 
<§> 3. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u t i/ f . . 6 

'Liquids, I, m, n, r, 4 

C Labials, . . . p, b t f,v,^ 

Mutes, <Palatics, . . c, g, q,j,£ .... 10 
v Linguals, . . t, d, ^ 

Sibilant, 5, 1 

Double letters, . . . . x, z, 2 

Aspirate, h, 1 

24 

JTis equivalent to cs or gs ; z to ts or ds ; and, except in 
compound words, the double letter is always written, instead 
of the letters which it represents. 

Diphthongs. 

<§> 4. Two vowels, in immediate succession, in the same 
syllable, are called a diphthong. 

The diphthongs are ae, ai, au, ei, eu, oe, oi, ua, ue, ui, uo, 
uu, and yi. Ae and oe are frequently written together, ce, oe. 

PUNCTUATION. 

V &• The only mark of punctuation used by the ancients was a point, 
which denoted pauses of different length, according as it was placed at the 
top, the middle, or the bottom of the line. The moderns use the same 
marks, in writing and printing Latin, as in their own languages, and as- 
sign to them the same power. 

The following marks, also, are sometimes found in Latin 
authors, especially in elementary works : — 

w - - The first denotes that the vowel over which it stands 
is short ; the second, that it is long ; the third, that it is 
doubtful. 

A This is called the circumflex accent. It denotes a con- 
traction, and the vowel over which it stands is always long. 

v This is the grave accent, and is sometimes written over 
particles, to distinguish them from other words containing the 
same letters ; as, quod, because ; quod, which. 

•• The diaeresis denotes that the vowel over which it stands 
does not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel ; as. aer, 
the air. It is used principally with ac, ai, and oe. 



^ 6. 7. ORTHOEPY. SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 



ORTHOEPY. 

$ 6. Orthoepy treats of the right pronunciation of words. 

The ancient pronunciation of the Latin language being in a 
great measure lost, the learned, in modern times, have applied to 
it those principles which regulate the pronunciation of their own 
languages ; and hence has arisen, in different countries, a great 
diversity of practice. 

In the following rules for dividing and pronouncing the words 
of the Latin language, we have endeavored to conform to Eng- 
lish analogy, and to the settled principles of Latin accent. The 
basis of this system is that which is exhibited by Walker in his 
" Pronunciation of Greek and Latin Proper Names." To pro- 
nounce correctly, according to this method, a knowledge of the 
following particulars is requisite : — 

1. Of the sounds of the letters in all their combinations. 

2. Of the quantities of the penultimate and final syllables. 

3. Of the place of the accent, both primary and secondary. 

4. Of the mode of dividing words into syllables. 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 
I. Of the Vowels. 

§7. 1 . An accented vowel, at the end of a syllable, 
has always its long English sound ; as, 

pa'-tcr, de'-dit, vi'-vus, to'-tus, tu'-ba, Ty'-rus; in which the 
accented vowels are pronounced as in fatal, metre, vital, 
total, tutor, tyrant. 

E, o, and u, at the end of an unaccented syllable, have 
nearly the same sound as when accented, but shorter and 
more obscure ; as, re'-te, vo'-lo, ad-u-o. 

A, at the end of an unaccented syllable, has the sound 
of a in father, or in ah ; as, mu'-sa, e-pis'-to-la ; pronounced 
mu'-sah, &c. 

I, at the end of a word, has always its long sound. 

So also in the first syllable of a word, the second of which is 
accented, when either the i stands alone before a consonant, or 
ends the syllable before a vowel ; as, i-do'-ne-us, fi-e'-bam 
di-ur'-nus. 



4 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. § 8, 9. 

In other cases, at tlio end of an unaccented syllable not final, 
it has an obscure sound, like; short e; as, Fa'-bi-us, phi-los'-d- 
phus ; pronounced Ea-bc-us, &lc. 

Kim ire I. The final i of tib'-i and sib-i also sounds like short e 
2. V is always pronounced like i in the same situation. 

§ 8. 2. When a syllable ends with a consonant, its 
vowel has the short English sound ; as, 

mag'-nus, rig'-num, fin'-go, hoc, fus'-tis, cyg'-nus, in which 
the vowels are pronounced as in magnet, seldom, finish, copy, 
lustre, symbol. 

Exception 1. A, when it follows qu in an accented syllable, 
before dr and rt, has the same sound as in quadrant and quart; 
as, qua-dro, quad-ra-gin'-ta, quar'-tus. 

Exc. 2. Es, at the end of a word, is pronounced like the 
English word ease ; as, ig'-ncs, au'-des. 

Exc. 3. Os, at the end of plural cases, is pronounced like ose 
in dose; as, nos, il'-los, dom'-i-nos. 

Exc. 4. Post is pronounced like the same word in English ; 
so also are its compounds; as, post'-quam, post'-e-a ; but not its 
derivatives ; as, pos-tre'-mus. 



II. Of the Diphthongs. 

§ 9. Ae and oe are pronounced as e would be in the same 
situation; as, a'-tas, ces'-tas, ccet'-e-ra, poe'-na, ozs'-trum. 

Ai, ei, oi, and yi, usually have the vowels pronounced sepa- 
rately. When they are accented, and followed by another vowel, 
the i is pronounced like initial y, and the vowel before it has 
its long sound ; as, Maia, Pompeius, Troius, Harpyia ; pro- 
nounced Ma'-ya, Pom-pe'-yus, Tro'-yus, Har-py'-ya. 

Ei, when a diphthong, and not followed by another vowel, is pronounced 
like long i ; as in hci. 

An, when a diphthong, is pronounced like aw; as, laus, au'~ 
rum. pronounced laws, &c. 

In the termination of Greek proper names, the letters au are 
pronounced separately ; as, Mcn-c-ld'-us. 

En, when a diphthong, is pronounced like long u; as, lieu, 
Or-phcus. 

Ua, ue, ui, uo, itu, when diphthongs, are pronounced like wa, 
we, &/C ; as, lin'-gua, quc'-ror, sua'-de-o, quo-tus, e'-quus. They 



$ 10, 11. SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS. 5 

are always diphthongs after q, and usually after g and s. In 
su'-us, ar'-gu-o, and some other words, they are not diphthongs. 
Ui in cut and hide is pronounced like long t. 

III. Of the Consonants. 

§10. The consonants have, in general, the same power 
in Latin as in English words. 

The following cases, however, require particular attention. 

c. 

C has the sound of s before e, I, and y, and the diphthongs 
cb and (B ; as, cc'-do, Cm'-sar, Cy'-rus. In other situations, it 
has the sound of k; as, Ca'-to, lac. 

Ch has always the sound of k ; as, charta, machina, pro- 
nounced kar'-ta, mak'-i-na. 

Exc. C, following or ending an accented syllable, before i 
followed by a vowel, and also before eu, has the sound of sh ; 
as, socia, caduceus, pronounced so'-shc-a, ca-du'-she-us. 

G. 

G has its soft sound, likej, before e, i, and */, and the diph- 
thongs (B and az ; as, ge'-nus, re-gi'-na. In other situations, it 
has its hard sound, as in bag, go. 

Exc. When g, in an accented syllable, comes before g soft, it coalesces 
with it in sound; as, agger, exaggero, pronounced aj'-er, &c. 

s. 

<§> 11. S has its hissing sound, as in so, thus. 

Exc. 1. S, following or ending an accented syllable, before 
i followed by a vowel, and before u ending a syllable, has the 
sound of sh; as, Persia, censui, pronounced Per'-she-a, cen'-shu-i. 
But, in such case, 5, if preceded by a vowel, has the sound of zh; 
as, Aspasia, Mozsia, posui, pronounced As-pa'-zhe-a, Mce'-zhe-a, 
pozh'-u-i. 

Note. In compound words, whose second part begins with su, s retains 
its hissing sound ; as, in'-su-per. 

Exc. 2. S, at the end of a word, after e, a, au, b, m, n, and r, 
has the sound of z ; as, res, ces, laus, trabs, hi'-ems, lens, Mars. 

English analogy has also occasioned the 5 in Ca'-sar, c(B-su'-ra,mi>-ser, 
mu'-sa, re-sid'-u-um, cau'-sa, ro'-sa, and their derivatives, and in some 
other words, to take the sound of z. Cces-a-re'-a, and the oblique cases of 
CcBsar, retain the hissing sound ; so likewise the compounds of trans. 
1 * 



6 QUANTITIES OF PENULTIMATE AND FINAL SYLLABLES. 

T. 

§12. T, following or ending an accented syllable, before i 
followed by a vowel, has the sound of sh ; as, ratio, Sulpitius, 
pronounced ra'-she-o, Sul-pish'-e-us. But in such case, t, if 
preceded by s or z, has the sound of ch in child; as, mixtio, 
Sallustius, pronounced miz'-che-o, Sal-lus'-che-us. 

Exc. Proper names in tion, and old infinitives in er, preserve the hard 
sound oft; as, Am-phid-ty-(m,jled-ti-er forjlecti. 

X. 

X, at the beginning of a syllable, has the sound of z; at the 
end, that of ks ; as Xenophon, axis, pronounced Zen'-o-phon, 
ak'-sis. 

Exc. 1. In words beginning with ex, followed by a vowel in 
an accented syllable, x has the sound of gz ; as, ezamino, exem- 
plum, pronounced eg-zam'-i-no, eg-zem' -plum. 

Exc. 2. X, ending an accented syllable, before i followed by 
a vowel, and before u ending a syllable, has the power of ksh ; 
as, nozius, pezui, pronounced nok'-she-us, pek'-shu-i. 

Remark. Ch and ph, before th. in the beginning of a word, are silent 
as Ghthonm, Phthia, pronounced Tho'-ni-a, Thi'-a. Also in the following 
combinations of consonants, in the beginning of words of Greek origin, 
the hrst letter is not sounded :—vine-nio?i'-t-ca, gna'-xus, tine' -sis, Ctd-si- 
as } Piol-e-ma'-us, psal'-lo. 



OF THE QUANTITIES OF THE PENULTIMATE AND 
FINAL SYLLABLES. 

§13. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. 

A short syllable requires, in pronunciation, half the time of a 
long one. 

The penultimate syllable, or penult, is the last syllable but one 
Ine antepenult is the last syllable but two. 

The quantities of syllables are, in general, to be learned from 
the " Rules of Prosody;" but the following very general rules 
may be here inserted : — 

A vowel before another vowel is short. 
Diphthongs, not beginning with u, are long. 
A vowel before x, z ,j, or any two consonants, except a mute 
and liquid, is long, by position, as it is called. 



§ 14, 15. ACCENTUATION. 7 

A vowel before a mute and a liquid is common, i. e. either 
long or short. 

In this Grammar, when the quantity of a penult is determined by one 
of the preceding rules, it is not marked ; in other cases, except in dis- 
syllables, the proper mark is written over its vowel. 

To pronounce Latin words correctly, it is necessary to ascertain the 
quantities of their last two syllables only ; and the rules for the quantities 
of final syllables would be unnecessary, but for the occasional addition of 
enclitics. As these are generally monosyllables, and, for the purpose of 
accentuation, are considered as parts of the words to which they are an- 
nexed, they cause the final syllable of the original word to become the 
penult of the compound. But as the enclitics begin with a consonant, 
the final vowels of all words ending with a consonant, if previously short, 
are, by the addition of an enclitic, made long by position. It is necessary, 
therefore, to learn the quantities of those final syllables only which end 
with a vowel. 



OF ACCENTUATION. 

§14. Accent is a particular stress of voice upon certain 
syllables of words. 

When a word has more than one accent, that which is near- 
est to the termination is called the primary or principal accent. 

The secondary accent is that which next precedes the 
primary. 

A third and a fourth accent, in some long words, precede 
ihe secondary, and are subject, in all respects, to the same 
rules. 

In words of two syllables, the penult is always accented ; 
as, pa'-ter, ma'-ter, pen'-na. 

In words of more than two syllables, if the penult is long, 
it is accented ; but. if it is short, the accent is on the ante- 
penult ; as, a-ml'-cus, dom/-i-nus. 

Remark. Accent, as treated of in §§ 14-23, refers to Eng- 
lish pronunciation alone, (see § 6,) and not to the written 
accents mentioned in §5. 

<§> 15. If the penult is common, the accent, in prose, is upon 
the antepenult ; as, vol'-u-cris, phar'-e-tra, ib'-i-que : but geni- 
tives in ius, in which i is common, accent their penult in prose ; 
as, u-Jii'-us, is-ti'-us. 

The rules for the accentuation of compound and simple words 
are the same ; as, se'-cum, sub'-e-o. 

In accentuation, the enclitics que, ne, ve, and also those 
which are annexed to pronouns,* are accounted constituent 



* These are te, met, pte, ce, cine, and dem; as, tute, egomet, meapte, hicce, 
hiccine, idem. 



8 DIVISION OF WORDS. SIMPLE WORDS. *§> 16-19. 

parts of the words to which they are subjoined; as, i'-ta, it'-a* 
que ; vi'-rum, vi-rum'-que. 

If only two syllables precede the primary accent, the secon- 
dary accent is on the first ; as, mod"-e-rd'-tus ) toV'-e-rab'-i-lis. 

<§> 16. If three or four syllables stand before the primary 
accent, the secondary accent is placed, sometimes on the first, 
and sometimes on the second syllable ; as, de-mon"stra-ban'-tur i 
ad"-o-les-cen'-ti-a. 

Some words which have only four syllables before the pri- 
mary accent, and all which have more than four, have three 
accents ; as, mod'"-e-ra"-ti-o'-nis, tol"-e-ra-bil"-i-d'-rem, ez-er"'- 
ci-ta"-ti-d'-nis. In some combinations there are four accents ; 
as, ez-er""-ci-ta" / -ti-on"-i-bus'-que. 



DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

VOWELS. 

V 1 * • 1. Every Latin word is to be divided into as many syllables 
as it has separate vowels and diphthongs. 

Remark 1. In the following rules, the term voicel includes not only 
single vowels, but diphthongs ; and when a particular vowel is mentioned, 
a diphthong ending with that vowel is intended also. 

CONSONANTS. 

Rem. 2. In the division of words into syllables, ch, ph, and th, are con- 
sidered, not as separate letters, but as single aspirated mutes, and hence 
are never separated. 

1. Simple Words. 

$18. A. — A single consonant, or a mute with I or r, be- 
tween two vowels. 

2. A single consonant, or a mute with I or r between the last 
two vowels of a word, or between the vowels of any two unac- 
cented syllables, must be joined to the vowel that follows it; 
as, t in pa'-ter and au'-tem ; th * in ce'-thcr ; cl in Hi-er '-6-cles ; 
q in a'-qua; cr in a'-cris and vol'-u-cris ; chr* in a'-chras ; r in 
tol'-e-ra-bil'-i-us ; and gr in pcr'-e-gri-na'-ti-o. 

Exception (a.) Tib'-i and sib'-i are commonly excepted. 

§ 19. 3. A single consonant, or a mute with / or r before 
the vowel of an accented syllable, must be joined to the ac- 
cented vowel ; as, t in i-tin'-e-ra ; th * in cB-tlie'-ri-us ; cl in Eu- 
cli'-des; gr in a-gres'-tis and a-gric"-o-la'-ti-o; pr in ca-pre'-o-lus; 
q in a-qua'-ri-us ; cl in Her"-a-cW~a ; and phr * in Eu-phrd'-tes. 

* See Remark 2d. 



$ 20-23. DIVISION OF WORDS. COMPOUND WORDS. 9 

Exception to the 2d and 3d Rules. 

Exc. (b.) Gl, tl, and thl* between any two vowels, are separated; as, 
gl in JEg'-le, and Ag'-lau-ros ; tl in At' -Las ; and thl in ath-let'-i-cus. 

"§> 20. 4. A single consonant after the vowel of any ac- 
cented syllable, except a penult, must be joined to the accented 
vowel ; as, m in dom'-i-nus and dom"-i-nd'-tus ; t in pat'-e-ra ; 
th * in Scyth'-i-a ; and q in aq'-ui-la and Aq"-ui-ta'-ni-a, (pro- 
nounced ak'-weAah and Ak"-we-ta'-ne-ah.) 

Exc. (c.) .H, standing alone between two vowels, is always joined to the 
vowel that follows it ; as, mi' -hi, tra' -he-re. 

5. A mute with I or r after the vowel of any accented syllable, except a 
penult, must be separated ; as, cr in ac'-ri-ter ; tr in det" -ri-men' -turn ; pr 
in cap'-ri-pes; phi* in Paph" -la-go' -ni-a ; and phr* in Aph-ro-dis'-i-a. 

Exceptions to the 4th and 5th Rules. 

Exc. (d.) A single consonant, or a mute with I or r, (except gl, tl, and 
thl*) after an accented a, e, or o, and before two vowels, the first of which 
is e, i, or y, must be joined to the syllable following the accent ; as, d in 
ra'-di-us,sua'-de-o, ta'-di-um, and me" -di- a' -tor ; r \nlm'-re-o and Ca"-ry- 
a'-tes ; ch* in bra'-chi-um; q in re'-qui-es. and re"qui-es'-co ; and *r 113 
pa'-tri-us and JE-no'-tri-a. 

Exc. (e.) A single consonant, or a mute with Z or r, after an accented 
w, must be joined to the vowel that follows it ; as, r in lu'-rt-dus and au'- 
re-us; cr in Eu'-cri-tus; and pi, in Nau'-pli-us, du'-pli-co, and dui'-pli-ca'-ti-o. 

Pvem. 3. £Z, after w, are always separated ; as, Pub'-li-us, Pub-lie' -6-la, 
res-pub' -U-ca. 

§21. 6. X, when alone between two vowels, in writing 
syllables is united to the vowel that precedes it, but in pronoun- 
cing them it is divided; zs,sax'-um, ax-il'-la, ex-em 1 -plum ; pro- 
nounced sac'-smn, ac-sil'-lah, and eg-zcm'-plum. 
B. — Two consonants between two vowels. 

7. Any two consonants (except a mute with I or r in the cases before 
mentioned!), when standing between two vowels, must be separated ; as, 
rp in cor' -pus; rm in ger-moV -nus ; rv in ca-ter'-va; sc in ad" -o-les' -cens ; 
nn in an' -nus ; and phth * in aph'-tha. 

§ 22. C. — Three or four consonants between two vowels. 

8. When three consonants stand between any two vowels, the two last, 
if a mute with I or r, are joined to the latter vowel, otherwise the last 
only; as, str in fe-nes' -tra ; mpl in ex-em' -plum ; rthr* in ar-thri'-tis ; and 
mpt in emp'-to-res. 

9. When four consonants come between two vowels, two are joined to 
each vowel ; as, nstr in trans' -trum. 

2. Compound Words. 

<§> 23. 10. Compound and simple words are divided into syllables 
in the same manner ; as, def-e-ro, dil'-i-gens, be-nev'-o-lus, pras'-to, eg'-o- 
met, res"-o-nd'-re. 

Exc. (/.) In dividing a compound word into syllables, a consonant or 
consonants, after the last vowel in the former part of the compound word, 
must not be separated from such vowel ; as, ab-es ! -se, in'-ers, cir"-cum- 
er'-ro, pot' -est, su'-per-est, sub'-i-tus, pra-ter'-e-a, trans' -l-tur. 

* See Remark 2d. t See Rules 2 and 3 > and Exceptions (d.) and (e.) 



10 ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. § 24-26. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 24. Etymology treats of the different classes of 
words, their derivation, and various inflections. 

The different classes, into which words are divided, are 
called Parts of Speech. 

The parts of speech in Latin are eight — Substantive or 
Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, 
Conjunction, and Interjection. 

The first four are inflected ; the last four are not inflected, 
except that some adverbs change their termination to express 
comparison. 

Substantives and adjectives are often included by grammarians under 
the general term nouns ; but, in this Grammar, the word noun is used as 
synonymous with substantive only. 

§ 25. To verbs belong Participles, Gerunds, and Supines, 
which partake of the meaning of the verb, and the inflection 
of the noun. 

Inflection, in Latin grammar, signifies a change in the ter- 
mination of a word. It is of three kinds — declension, conjuga- 
tion, and comparison. 

Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, participles, gerunds, and su- 
pines, are declined ; verbs are conjugated, and adjectives and 
adverbs are compared. 

NOUNS. 

^ 26. A substantive or noun is the name of an object. 

A proper noun is the name of an individual object ; as, 
Ccesar ; Roma, Rome ; Tiberis, the Tiber. 

A common noun is the name of a class of objects, to 
each of which it is applicable ; as, homo, a man ; avis, a 
bird ; quercus, an oak ; lapis, a stone. 

A collective noun is one which, in the singular number, 
denotes a collection of individuals ; as, populus, a people ; 
excrcitus, an army. 



§ 27, 28. GENDER. 1 1 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, or 
other attribute ; as, bonitas, goodness ; gaudium, joy ; 
festinatio, haste. 

A material noun is the name of a substance considered 
in the gross ; as, lignum, wood ; ferrum, iron ; cibus, food. 

Remark. Proper, abstract, and material nouns become common, when 
employed to denote one or more of a class of objects. A verb in the in- 
finitive mood is often used as an abstract noun. 

To nouns belong gender, number, and case. 

GENDER. 

§ 27. The gender of a noun is its distinction in regard 
to sex. 

Nouns have three genders — masculine, feminine, and 
neuter. 

The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical 

Those words are naturally masculine or feminine, which are 
used to designate the sexes. 

Those are grammatically masculine or feminine, which, 
though they denote objects that are neither male nor female, 
take adjectives of the form appropriated to nouns denoting the 
sexes : thus, dominus, a lord, is naturally masculine, because it 
denotes a male; but sermo, speech, is grammatically mascu- 
line, because it takes an adjective of that form which is an- 
nexed to nouns denoting males. 

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns depends either on 
their signification, or on their declension and termination. 
The following are the general rules of gender, in reference to 
signification. Many exceptions to them, on account of termi- 
nation, occur : these will be specified under the several de- 
clensions. 

§28. Masculines. 1. Names and appellations of all 
male beings are masculine ; as, Homerus, Homer ; pater, a 
father ; consul, a consul ; equus, a horse. 

As proper names usually follow the gender of the general 
name under which they are comprehended ; hence, 

2. Names of rivers, winds, and months, are masculine, 
because fluvius, ventus, and mensis, are masculine ; as, Tib- 
eris, the Tiber ; Aquilo, the north wind ; Aprllis, April. 

3. Names of mountains are sometimes masculine, because 
mons is masculine ; as, Othrys, a mountain of Thessaly ; but 



12 COMMON AND DOUBTFUL GENDER. $ 29, 30. 

they usually follow the gender of their termination; as, hie* 
Atlas, liccc Ida, hoc iSuractc. 

§ 29. Feminine s. 1. Names and appellations of all 
female beings are feminine ; as, Helena, Helen ; mater, a 
mother ; juvenca, a heifer. 

2. Names of countries, towns, trees, plants, ships, islands, 
poems, and gems, are feminine ; because terra, urbs, arbor, 
plant a, navis, insula, fabula, and gemma, are feminine ; as, 

SEgyptus, Egypt ; Corinthus, Corinth ; pirus, a pear-tree ; 
nardus, spikenard ; Centaurus, the ship Centaur ; Samqs, the 
name of an island ; Eunuchus, the Eunuch, a comedy of 
Terence ; amethyst us, an amethyst. 

<§> 30. Common and Doubtful Gender. Some words are 
either masculine or feminine. These, if they denote things 
animate, are said to be of the common gender ; if things inani- 
mate, of the doubtful gender. 

Of the former are parens, a parent ; bos, an ox or cow : of 
the latter, Jinis, an end. 

The following nouns are of the common gender : — 

Adolescens, a youth. Dux, a leader. Parens, a parent. 

Afflnis, a relation by Exul, an exile. Par, a mate. 

marriage. Hospes, a guest, a host. Praeses, a president. 

Antistes, a chief priest. Hostis, an enemy. Prossul, a chief priest. 

Auctor, an author. Infans, an infant. Princeps, a prince or 

Auirur, an augur. Interpres,«rc interpreter. ■princess. 

Bos, on ox or cow. Judex, a judge. Sacerdos, a priest or 

Canis, a dog. Juvenis, a youth. priestess. 

Civis, a citizen. Miles, a soldier. Satelles, a life-guard. 

Comes, a companion. Munlceps. a burgess. Sus. a sicine. 

Conjux, a spouse. Nemo, nobody. Testis, a icitness. 

Consors, a consort. Obses, a hostage. Vates, a prophet. 

Conviva, a guest. Patruelis, a cousin. Verna, a slave. 

Custos, a keeper. Palumbes, a icood-pigeon. Vindex, an avenger. 

The following hexameters contain nearly all the above nouns : — 
Conjux, atque parens, princeps, patruelis, et infans, 
.Qffinis, vindex, judix. dux, miles, et hostis, 
Augur, et antistes, juvZnis, conviva, sacerdos, 
Munl-que-ceps, vates, adolescens, civis, et auctor, 
Custos, nemo, comes, testis, sus, bos-que, canis-que, 
Pro consorte tori par, prcesul, verna, satelles, 
Atque obses, consors, interpres, et exul, et hospes. 



* To distinguish the render of Latin nouns, grammarians write hie before the 
masculine, luvc before the feminine, and hoc before the neuter. 



$ 31-34. EPICENES. NEUTERS. 13 

§ 31. When nouns of the common gender denote males, 
they take a masculine adjective ; when they denote females, a 
feminine. 

The following are either masculine or feminine in sense, but 
masculine only in grammatical construction : — 

Artlfex, an artist. Fur, a thief. OpTfex, a workman. 

Auspex, a soothsayer. Heres, an heir. Pedes, a footman. 

Codes, a person having Homo, aman or woman. Pngil, a boxer. 

but one eye. Index, an informer. Senex, an old person. 

Eques, a horseman. Latro, a robber. 

Exlex, an outlaw. Liberi, children. 

To these may be added personal appellatives of the first de- 
clension ; as, advena, a stranger ; auriga, a charioteer ; incola, 
an inhabitant : also some gentile nouns ; as, Persa, a Persian ; 
Areas t an Arcadian. 

$ 32. The following, though masculine or feminine in 
sense, are feminine only in construction : — 



Copioe, troops. OpSrEB, laborers. Vigilitc, watchmen. 

Custodian, guards. Proles, 

Excubise, sentinels. Sobules, 



I offspring. 



Some nouns, signifying persons, are neuter, both in their 
termination and construction ; as, 

Acroama, a jester. Mancipium, ) , 

Auxilia, auxiliary troops. Servitium, ) 

$ 33, Epicenes. Names of animals which include both 
sexes, but which admit of an adjective of one gender only, are 
called epicene. Such nouns commonly follow the gender of 
their terminations. Thus, passer, a sparrow, corvus,u. raven, are 
masculine ; aquila, an eagle, vulpes, a fox, are feminine ; 
though each of them is used to denote both sexes. 

This class includes the names of animals, in which the distinction of 
Bex is seldom attended to. When it is necessary to mark the sex, mas 
orfemlna is usually added. 

§ 34. Neuters. Nouns which are neither masculine 
nor feminine, are said to be of the neuter gender ; such 
are, 

1. All indeclinable nouns; as, fas, ncfas, nihil, gummi, 
pondo. 

2. Names of letters; as, A, fi, C, &c. 

3. Words used merely as such, without reference to their 
meaning ; as, pater est dissyllabum ; pater is a dissyllable. 

4. All infinitives, imperatives, clauses of sentences, adverbs, 

2 



14 NUMBER. CASES. DECLENSIONS. <§> 35-38. 

and other particles, used substantively ; as, scire tuum, your 
knowledge ; ultimum vale, the last farewell. 

Remark. Words derived from the Greek retain the same gender 
which they have in that language. 

NUMBER. 

«§> 35. Latin nouns have two numbers, — the singular and 
the plural, — which are distinguished by their terminations. 

The singular number denotes one object; the plural, 
more than one. 

CASES. 

<§> 36. Many of the relations of objects, which, in English, 
are denoted by prepositions, are, in Latin, expressed by a 
change of termination. 

Cases are those terminations of nouns, by means of 
which their relations to other words are denoted. Latin 
nouns have six cases ; viz. Nominative, Genitive, Dative, 
Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 

But though there is this number of cases, no noun has so 
many different terminations in each number. 

$ 37. The nominative indicates the relation of a subject 
to a finite verb. 

The genitive is used to indicate origin, possession, and many 
other relations, which, in English, are denoted by the preposi- 
tion of. 

The dative denotes that to or for which any thing is, or is 
done. 

The accusative is either the object of an active verb, or of 
certain prepositions, or the subject of an infinitive. 

The vocative is the form appropriated to the name of any 
object which is addressed. 

The ablative denotes privation, and many other relations, 
especially those which are usually expressed in English by the 
prepositions with, from, in, or by. 

All the cases, except the nominative, are usually called 06- 
liqne cases. 

DECLENSIONS. 

<§> 38. The change of termination, by which the different 
cases and numbers of nouns are expressed, is called declension. 



*§> 39, 40. DECLENSIONS. TERMINATIONS. 



15 



There are, in Latin, five different modes of declining 
nouns, called the^rs^, second, third, fourth, and fifth de- 
clensions. These may be distinguished by the termination 
of the genitive singular, which, in the first declension, ends 
in cc, in the second in i, in the third in is, in the fourth in 
us, and in the fifth in e'i. 

<§> 39. The following table exhibits a comparative view of 
the five declensions. 





I. 


Norn. 


a, 


Gen. 


ae, 


Dat. 


33, 


Ace. 


am, 


Voc. 


a, 


Abl. 


a, 



II. 

M. N. 

us,er, um, 

h 
o, 

um, 
e, er, um, 



Terminations. 
Singular. 
III. 
31. N. 

is, 

em, — 

e, or I, 



IV. 



31. 



ui, 

um, 

us, 



N. 



es, 
ei, 
er, 
em, 
es, 



Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl 



33, 


i, a, 


arum, 


orum, 


is, 


is, 


as, 


os, a, 


33, 


I, a, 


is. 


is. 



Plural. 

es, a, ia, 
um, or ium, 

ibus, 
es, a, ia, 
es, a, ia, 

ibus. 



us, ua, 

uum, 
ibus, or iibus, 
us, ua, 

us, ua, 

ibus, or iibus. 



es, 
erum, 
ebus, 



es, 
ebus. 



<§> 40. 1. The terminations of the nominative, in the third declen- 
sion, are very numerous, and are therefore omitted in the table. 

2. The accusative singular ends always in m, except in some 
neuters. 

.3. The vocative singular is like the nominative in all Latin 
nouns, except those in us of the second declension. 

4. The nominative and vocative plural end always alike. 

5. The genitive plural ends always in um. 

6. The dative and ablative plural end always alike ; — in the 
1st and 2d declensions, in is ; in the 3d, 4th, and 5th, in bus. 



16 



FIRST DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. <§> 42. 



7. The accusative plural ends always in s, except in 
neuters. 

8. Nouns of the neuter gender have the accusative and 
vocative like the nominative, in both numbers ; and these 
cases, in the plural, end always in a. 

9. The 1st and 5th declensions contain no nouns of the neuter gender, 
and the 4th and 5th contain no proper names. 

10. Every inflected word consists of two parts — a root, and 
a termination. The root is the part which is not changed by 
inflection. The termination is the part annexed to the root. 
The preceding table exhibits terminations only. In the fifth 
declension, the e of the final syllable, though unchanged, is 
considered as belonging to the termination. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 

§ 41. Nouns of the first declension end in a, e, as, or 
es. Those in a and e are feminine ; those in as and 
es are masculine. 

Latin nouns of this declension end only in a, and are thus 
declined : — 



Singular. 
Nom. Mu'-sa, a muse ; 


Plural. 
Nom. mu'-sae, muses ; 


Gen. mu'-sae, 


of a muse ; 


Gen. mu-sa'-rum, of muses ; 


Dat. mu'-sae, 


to a muse ; 


Dat. mu'-sis, to muses ; 


Ace. mu'-sam, 


a muse ; 


Ace. mu'-sas, muses ; 


Voc. mu'-sa, 


O muse ; 


Voc. mu'-sae, O muses ; 


Abl. mu'-sa, with a muse. 


Abl. mu'-sis, with muses 


In like manner 


decline 




Au'-la, a hall. 
Cu'-ra, care. 
Ga'-le-a, a helmet. 
In'-su-la, an island. 
Lit'-e-ra, a letter. 


Lus-cin'-i 

gale. 
Mach'-I-n 
Pen'-na, a 


a, a nightin- Sa-git'-ta, an arrow. 

Stel'-la, a star. 
a, a machine. To'-ga, a goicn. 
quill, a wing. Vi'-a, a way. 



Exceptions in Gender. 

<§> 42. 1. Appellatives of men, and names of rivers in a, are 
masculine, according to § 28, 1 and 2. But the poets have used 
the following names of rivers as feminine : Albula, Allia, Dru- 
entia, Garumna, Matrona, Mosella. Names of rivers in e are 
also feminine : as, Lethe. 



^ 43-45. FIRST DECLENSION. GREEK NOUNS. 17 

Ossa and GEta, names of mountains, are masculine or fem- 
inine. 

2. Hadria, the Adriatic sea, is masculine. Virgil uses dama 
twice and talpa once as masculine. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

<§>43. Genitive singular. 1. The poets sometimes formed 
the genitive singular in di ; as, aula, a hall ; gen. aulai. 

2. Familia, after pater, mater, filius, or jilia, usually forms 
its genitive in as ; as, malcr-famiUas, the mistress of a family ; 
gen. matris-familias ; nom. \)\\ir.matrcs-familias or familiar urn. 
Some other words anciently formed their genitive in the same 
manner. 

Genitive plural. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted 
by omitting ar ; as, Coelicolum, for Cazlieoldrum. 

Dative and Ablative plural. The following nouns have 
generally dbus in the dative and ablative plural, to distinguish 
them from the same cases of masculines in us of the second 
declension having the same root. 

Doa, a goddess. Equa, a mare. 

Filia, a daughter. Mula, a she mule. 

The use of a similar termination in anlma, aslna, domlna, liberta, nata, 
scrva, conserva, and socia, rests on inferior authority. 

Greek Nouns. 

§ 44. Nouns of the first declension in e, as, and es, and 
some also in a, are Greek. Greek nouns in a are declined like 
musa, except that they sometimes have an in the accusative 
singular; as, Ossa; ace. Ossam, or Ossan. 

Greek nouns in e, as, and es, are thus declined in the singu- 
lar number : — 

JV. Pe-nel'-o-pe, JY*. iE-ne'-as, JY. An-chi'-ses, 

G, Pe-nel'-6-pes, G. JE-ne'-sz, G. An-chl'-sae, 

D. Pe-nel'-o-pa), D. iE-ne'-ae, D. An-chl'-sa?, 

Ac. Pe-nel'-o-pen, Ac. /E-ne'-am, or an, Ac. An-chl'-sen, 

V. Pe-nel'-o-pe, V. jE-ne'-a, V. An-chl'-se, 

Ab. Pe-nel'-o-pe. Ab. JE-ne'-a. Ab. An-chl'-se. 

§ 45. In like manner decline 

Al'-o-e, aloes. Ti-a'-ras, a turban. 

E-pit'-o-me, an abridgment. Co-me'-tes, a comet. 

This'-be. Dy-nas'-tes, a ruler. 

Bo'-re-as, the north wind. Pri-anV-f-des, a son of Priam. 

Mi'-das. Py-ri'-tes, a kind of stone. 
Patronymics in des have sometimes em for en in the accusative ; as, 
Priamldem. 

2* 



18 SECOND DECLENSION. $ 46, 47. 

Greek nouns which admit of a plural, are declined in that number liko 
the plural of musa. 

The Latins frequently change the terminations of Greek nouns in es 
and e into a ; as, Strides, Atrida, a son of Atreus ; Parses, Persa, a 
Persian ; gcometres, geometra, a geometrician ; Circe, Circa ; epitome, 
epitdma ; grammatlce, grammatlca, grammar ; rhctorlce, rhctorlca, ora- 
tory. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 

<§> 46. Nouns of the second declension end in er, ir, 
us, um, os, on. Those ending in um and on are neuter ; the 
rest are masculine. 

Nouns in er, us, and um, are thus declined : — 

Singular. 





A lord. 


A son-in-law. 


A field. 


A kingdom. 


N. 


Dom'-T-nus, 


Ge'-ner, 


A'-ger, 


Reg'-num, 


G. 


dom'-I-ni, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-ni, 


D. 


dom'-i-no, 


gen'-e-ro, 


a'-gro, 


reg'-no, 


Ac. 


dom'-i-num, 


gen'-e-rum, 


a'-grum, 


reg'-num, 


V. 


dom'-I-ne, 


ge'-ner, 


a'-ger, 


reg'-num, 


Ab. 


dom'-i-no. 


gen'-e-ro. 

Plural. 


a'-gro. 


reg'-no. 


N. 


dom'-T-ni, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-na, 


G. 


dom-i-no'-rum, 


gen-e-ro'-rum, 


a-gro'-rum, 


reg-no'-rum, 


D. 


dom'-I-nis, 


gen'-e-ris, 


a'-gris, 


reg'-nis, 


Ac. 


dom'-i-nos, 


gen'-e-ros, 


a'-gros, 


reg'-na, 


V. 


dom'-i-ni, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-na, 


Ab. 


dom'-i-nis. 


gen'-e-ris. 


a'-gris. 


reg'-nis. 



Like dominus decline 

Am'-i-mus, the mind. Fo'-cus, a hearth. Nu'-me-rus, a number. 

Clyp'-e-us, a shield. Gla'-di-us, a sicord. O-ce'-a-nus, the ocean. 

Cor'-vus, a raven. Lu'-cus, a grove. Tro'-chus, a top. 

§ 47. Some nouns in er, like gener, add the terminations 
to the nominative singular, as a root. They are the compounds 
of gero and fero; as, armiger,-eri, an armor-bearer; Lucifer, 
-eri, the morning star ; and the following : — 

A-dul'-ter, eri, an adul- I'-ber, eri, a Spaniard. So'-cer, Sri, afather-in- 

terer. Li'-ber, eri, Bacchus. law. 

Cel'-tl-ber, eri, a Celti- Pu'-er, en, a boy. Ves'-per, Sri, the even 
berian. ing. 

Mulclber, Vulcan, sometimes has this form 



£50. SECOND DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 10 

$ 48. All other nouns in rr reject the c, in adding the 
terminations, and are declined like ager ; thus, 

A '-per, a wild hour. LA'-ber, a book. Al-ex-an'-der. 

Aus'-Ut, i/u: smith wind. Ma-gid' -ter, a master. Teu'-cer. 

Fa -ber, a workman. Ou'-a-jrer, a wUd ass. IsMer. 

17/-, a man, and its compounds, (the only nouns in />,) are 
declined like gener. 

Like regninn decline 

An -trum,a cave. Ne-go'-ti-um,* a bust- Prue-sid'-i-um, a defence. 

A'-tri-um, a hall. jicss. Sax'-um, a rock. 

Bel'-lum, war. Ni'-trum, nitre. Seep'-trum, a sceptre. 

Ex-em'-plum,tt« example. 



Exceptions in Gender. 
§ 49. 1. The following nouns in us are feminine : — 

Abyssus, a bottomless Carbasus, a Sail. Miltus, vermilion. 

pit. Dialectus, a dialect. Pharus, a watch-tower. 

Alvus, the belly. Domus, a house. Plinthus, the foot of a 

Antidotus, an antidote. Ergmus, a desert. pillar. 

Arctus, the Northern Humus, the ground. V annus, a sieve. 

Bear. Lecythus, a cruise. 

2. Greek nouns in phthongus, odus, and metros, are likewise 
feminine ; as, diphthongus, a diphthong; si/nodus, an assembly ; 
diametros, a diameter. 

•§> 50. 3. Names of countries, towns, trees, plants, &,c. are 
feminine, according to § 29, 2. 

Yet the following names of plants are masculine : — 

Acanthus, bears-foot. Dumus, a thicket. Raphanus, a radish. 

Asparagus, asparagus. Hellebdrus, hellebore. Rhamnus, black-thorn. 

Calamus, a reed. Intybus, endive. Rubus, a bramble 

Carduus,a thistle. J uncus, a bulrush. Tribulus, a thistle. 

And sometimes 

Ainaracus, marjoram. Cytisus, hadder. 

Cupressus, cypress. Lotos, a lote-tree. 

Names of trees in aster are also masculine; as, oleaster, a 

wild olive. 

The following names of gems are also masculine : — 

Beryllus, a beryl. Chrysoprasus, chryso- ¥yxo\ms, pyrope. 

Car'bunculus, a carbun- prase. Smaragdus, an emerald, 

cle. Opal us, opal. 

Chrysolithus, chryso- 
lite. 

* Pronounced ne-go'-she-um. See $ 12. 



20 SECOND DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS. $ 51-53. 

Names of trees and plants in um are generally neuter. 

These names of countries and towns are masculine : Canopus, 
Pontus, and all plurals in i. Abydus and Lesbos are either 
masculine or feminine. Ilion is either neuter or feminine. 

Names of towns ending in um, or, if plural, in a, are neuter. 

§51. 4. The following are doubtful, but more frequently 
masculine : — 

Balanus, a date. Grossus, a green fig. Phaselus, a little ship. 

Barbltus, a harp. Pamplnus, a vine-leaf. 

Atdmus, an atom, and colus, a distaff, are doubtful, but more frequently 
feminine. 

5. Peldgus, the sea, and virus, poison, are neuter. 
Vulgus, the common people, is generally neuter, but some- 
times masculine. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

$52. Genitive singular. When the genitive singular ends 
in ii, the poets sometimes contract it into i ; as, ingeni, for 
ingenii. 

Vocative singular. The vocative of nouns in us is some- 
times like the nominative, especially in poetry ; as, Jluvius, 
Latinus, in Virgil. So, audi tu, populus ; Liv. 

Proper names in ius omit e in the vocative ; as, Horatius, 
Ho rati; Virgilius, Virgili. 

Filius, a son, and genius, a guardian angel, make also fili and geni. 
Other nouns in ins, including patrials and possessives derived from proper 
names, form their vocative regularly in e ; as, Delius, Dclie ; Tirynthius, 
Tinjnthic; Laertivs, Laertie. 

$ 53. Genitive plural. The genitive plural of some words, 
especially of those which denote money, measure, and weight, 
is commonly formed in um, instead of drum. 

Such are particularly nammum, scstcrtiilm, denarium, medimnum, 
jugCrum, modium, talentum. The same form occurs in other words, es- 
pecially in poetry ; as, deihn, liber urn, Danaum, &c. 

Deus, a god, is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

N. De'-us, N. Di'-i, Di, or De-i, 

G. De'-i, G. De-6'-rum, 

D. De'-o, D. Di'-is, Dis, or De'-is, 

Ac. De'-um, Ac. De'-os, 

V. De'-us, V. Di'-i, Di, or De'-i, 

Ab. De'-o. Ab. Di'-is, Dis, or De'-is. 
Jesus, the name of the Savior, has um in the accusative, and u in all 
the other oblique cases. 



§ 54-5G. THIRD DECLENSION. 21 

Greek Nouns. 
$ 54. Os and on, in the second declension, are Greek 
terminations, and are often changed, in Latin, into us and urn ; 
as, Alphios, Alpheus ; Bion, Ilium. Those in ros are gen- 
erally changed into er ; as, Alexandros, Alexander ; Tcucros, 
Tcucer. 

Greek nouns are thus declined : — 

Barbiton, a lyre. 
Singular. 
JV. De'-los, An-dro'-ge-os, 
G. De'-li, An-dro'-ge-o, or i, 
D. De'-lo, An-dro'-ge-o, 
Ac De'-lon, An-dro'-ge-o, or on, 
V. De'-le, An-dro'-ge-os, 
Ab. De'-lo. An-dro'-ge-o. 
Anciently, some nouns in os had the genitive in v, ; as, Mcnandru. Ter. 
Greek proper names in eus are generally declined like doviinus, except 
in the vocative, which ends in cu: in this case, and sometimes in the 
genitive, dative, and accusative, they retain the Greek form, and are of 
the third declension. See § 86. 

Panthu occurs in Virgil as the vocative of Panthus. 



Singvlar. Plural. 

N. bar'-bi-ton, bar'-bl-ta, 

G. bar'-bl-ti, bar'-bi-ton, 

D. bar'-bl-to, bar'-bl-lis, 

Ac. bar'-bl-ton, bar'-bl-ta, 

V. bar'-bl-ton, bar'-bi-ta, 

Ab. bar'-bl-to. bar'-bi-tis. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 55, The number of final letters, in this declension, is 
twelve. Five are vowels— a, e,i,o,y ; and seven are conso- 
nants — c, I, n, r, s, t, x. The number of its final syllables 
exceeds fifty. 

Mode of declining Nouns of the Third Declension. 

In this declension the oblique cases cannot always be determined from 
the nominative, nor, on the other hand, the nominative from the oblique 
cases. To decline a word properly, in this declension, it is necessary to 
know its gender, its nominative singular, and one of its oblique cases ; 
since the root of the cases is not always found entire and unchanged in 
the nominative. The case usually selected for this purpose is the geni- 
tive singular. The formation of the accusative singular, and of the 
nominative, accusative, and vocative plural, depends upon the gender : 
if it is masculine or feminine, these cases have one form ; if neuter, another. 

<§> OO. The student should first fix well in his memory the terminations 
of one of these forms. He should next learn the nominative and genitive 
sincrular of the word which is to be declined. If is is removed from the 
genitive, the remainder will always be the root of the oblique cases, and 
by annexing their terminations to this root, the word is declined ; thus, 
rupes, genitive (found in the dictionary) rup'is, root rup, dative rupi, &.C.; 
so ars, gen artis, root art, dat. arti, &c. ; opus, gen. operis, root oper, 
dat. operi, &c. 

Where two forms are used in the same case, recourse must be had to 
the rules for the different cases, § 79 — 85. 



22 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§ 57. 



The following are the two forms of termination in this 



declension : — 






Singular. 
Masc. and Fern. JVeut. 


Plural. 
Masc. and Fern. JVeut 


N. * 


* 


N. es, a, or ia, 


G. is, 
D. i, 


is, 


G. urn, or ium, um, or ium, 
Z). ibus, ibus, 


Ac. em, or im, 

V. * 

Ab. e, or i. e 


* 

* 

, or i. 


Ac. es, a, or ia, 
F. es, a, or ia, 
-45. ibus. ibus. 


The asterisk stands for th< 
which are like it. 


3 nominative, and for those cas 



<§> 57. The following are examples of the most common 
forms of nouns of this declension, declined through all their 
cases. 

Honor, honor ; masc. Sermo, speech ; masc. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. ho-nor, 


ho-no'-res, 


N. ser'-mo 


ser-mo'-nes, 


G. ho-no'-ris, 


ho-no'-rum, 


G. ser-mo -nis, 


ser-mo'-num, 


D. ho-no'-ri, 


ho-nor'-i-bus, 


D. ser-mo -ni, 


ser-mon'-i-bus, 


Ac. ho-no'-rem 


, ho-no'-res, 


Ac. ser-mo'-nem, 


ser-mo'-nes. 


V. ho'-nor, 


ho-no'-res, 


V. ser'-mo, 


ser-mo'-nes, 


Ab. ho-no'-re. 


ho-nor'-i-bus. 


Ab. ser-mo'-ne. 


ser-mon'-i-bus. 


Rupes, a rock; fern. 


Turris, a tower; fem. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. ru'-pes, 


ru'-pes, 


N. tur'-ris, 


tur'-res, 


G. ru'-pis, 


ru'-pi-um, 


G. tur'-ris, 


tur'-ri-um, 


D. ru'-pi, 


ru'-pi-bus, 


D. tur'-ri, 


tur'-ri-bus, 


Ac. ru'-pem, 


ru'-pes, 


Ac. tur'-rem,rim 


. tur'-res, 


V. ru'-pes, 


ru'-pes, 


V. tur'-ris, 


tur'-res, 


Ab. ru'-pe. 


ru'-pi-bus. 


Ab. tur'-re, or ri. 


tur'-ri-bus. 


Ars, art 


; fem. 


Nox, nig 


ht ; fem. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. ars, 


ar'-tes, 


N. nox, 


noc'-tes, 


G. ar'-tis, 


ar'-ti-um,* 


G. noc'-tis, 


noc'-ti-um,* 


D. ar'-ti, 


ar'-ti-bus, 


D. noc'-ti, 


noc'-tl-bus, 


Ac. ar'-tem, 


ar'-tes, 


Ac. noc'-tem, 


noc'-tes, 


V. ars, 


ar'-tes, 


V. nox, 


noc'-tes, 


Ab. ar'-te. 


ar'-ti-bus. 


Ab. noc'-te. 


noc'-ti-bus. 



* Pronounced ari-slie-um, noc'-she-um. See $ 12. 



§57. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



23 



Miles, a soldier; com. gen. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. mi'-les, mil'-i-tes, 

G. mil'-i-tis, mil'-i-tum, 

D. mil'-i-ti, mi-lit'-I-bus, 

Ac. mil'-i-tem, mil'-i-tes, 

V. mi'-les, mil'-i-tes, 

Ab. mil'-i-te. mi-lit'-I-bus. 

Pater, a father ; masc. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. pa'-ter, pa'-tres, 

G. pa'-tris, pa'-trum, 

D. pa'-tri, pat'-ri-bus, 

Ac. pa'-trem, pa'-tres, 

V. pa'-ter, pa'-tres, 

Ah. pa'-tre. pat'-ri-bus. 

Sedlle, a seat ; neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. se-di'-le, se-dil'-i-a, 

G. se-di'-lis, se-dil'-i-um, 

D. se-dl'-li, se-dil'-i-bus, 

Ac. se-di'-le, se-dil'-i-a, 

V. se-di'-le, se-dil'-i-a, 

Ah. se-dl'-li. se-dil-I-bus. 



Carmen, a verse ; neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. car'-men, car'-mi-na, 
G. car'-ml-nis, car'«mT-num, 
D. car'-mT-ni, car-min'-T-bus, 
Ac. car'-men, car'-mi-na, 
V. car'-men, car'-mi-na, 
Ab. car'-mi-ne. car-min'-i-bus. 

Iter, a journey ; neut. 
Singular. Plural. 

N. i'-ter, i-tin'-e-ra, 

G. i-tin'-e-ris, i-tin'-e-rum, 

D. i-tin'-e-ri, it-i-ner'-T-bus, 

Ac. i'-ter, i-tin'-e-ra, 

V. i'-ter, i-tin'-e-ra, 

Ab. i-tin'-e-re. it-i-ner'-i-bus. 



Lapis, a stone ; masc. 
Singula?'. Plural. 

N. la'-pis, lap'-i-des, 

G. lap'-i-dis, lap'-T-dum, 

D. lap'-T-di, la-pid'-i-bus, 

Ac. lap'-T-dem, lap'-i-des, 

V. la'-pis, lap'-I-des, 

Ab. lap'-I-de. la-pid'-i-bus. 

Virgo, a virgin ; fern. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. vir'-go, vir'-gT-nes, 

G. vir'-gl-nis, vir'-gl-num, 

D. vir'-gl-ni, vir-gin'-I-bus, 

Ac. vir'-gT-nem, vir'-gi-nes, 

V. vir'-go, vir'-gT-nes, 

Ab. vir'-gi-ne. vir-2"in'-i-bus. 

Animal, an animal ; neut. 
Singular. Plural. 

iV. an'-i-mal, an-i-ma'-Ii-a, 
G. an-i-ma'-lis, an-i-ma'-li-um, 

D. an-i-ma'-li, an-i-mal'-i-bus 

Ac. an'-i-mal, an-i-ma'-li-a, 

V. an'-i-mal, an-i-ma'-li-a, 

Ab. an-i-ma'-li. an-i-mal'-i-bus 

Opus, a work ; neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. o'-pus, op'-e-ra, 

G. op'-e-ris, op'-e-rum, 

D. op'-e-ri, o-per'-i-bus, 

Ac. o'-pus, op'-e-ra, 

V. o'-pus, op'-e-ra, 

Ab. op'-e-re. o-per'-i-bus. 

Caput, a head ; neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. ca'-put, cap'-i-ta, 

G. cap'-i-tis, cap'-I-tum, 

D. cap'-T-ti, ca-pit'-I-bus, 

Ac. ca-put, cap'-i-ta, 

V. ca'-put, cap'-I-ta, 

Ab, cap'-I-te. ca-pit'-I-bus* 



24 THI2.D DECLENSION. GENDER. § 58-60. 

Poema, a poem ; neut. 
Singular. Plural 

N. po-e-ma, po-em'-a-ta, 

G. po-em'-a-tis, po-em'-a-tum, 

D. po-em'-a-ti, po-e-mat'-I-bus, or po-em'-a-tis, 

Ac. po-e'-ma, po-em'-a-ta, 

V. po-e'-ma, po-em'-a-ta, 

Ab. po-em'-a-te. po-e-mat'-i-bus, or po-em'-a-tis. 

Rules for the Gender of Nouns of the Third 
Declension. 

§ 58. Nouns whose gender is determined by their signi- 
fication, according to the general rules, §28 — 34, are not 
included in the following rules and exceptions. 

MASCULINES. 

Nouns ending in o, er, or, es increasing in the genitive, 
and os, are masculine ; as, 

sermo, speech ; dolor, pain ; Jlos, a flower ; career, a prison ; 
pes, a foot. 

Exceptions in O. 

§ 59. 1. Nouns in io are feminine, when they signify 
things incorporeal ; as, ratio, reason. 

2. Nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, are femi- 
nine ; as, arundo, a reed ; imago, an image. So also grando. 
hail. But comedo, a glutton; unedo, a kind of fruit; and 
harpago, a hook, are masculine. 

Margo, the brink of a river, is either masculine or feminine. Cupido, 
desire, is often masculine in poetr}', but in prose is always feminine. 

3. Caro, flesh, and Greek nouns in o, are feminine ; as, echo, an 
echo. Sulmo, the name of a river, is masculine. 

Exceptions in ER. 

§> 60. 1. Tuber, the tuber-tree, is feminine; but when it denotes 
the fruit, it is masculine. Linter, a boat, and Laver, water-cresses, are 
feminine;* siser, a carrot, is neuter.* 

2. The following, in er, are neuter : — 

Acer, a maple-tree. 1'apaver, a poppy. Tuber, a swelling. 

Cadaver, a dead body. Piper, pepper. Uber, a teat. 

Cicer, a vetch. Siler, an osier. Ver, the spring. 

Iter, a journey. Spinther, a clasp. Verber, a scourge. 

Laser, benzoin. Suber, a cork-tree. Zingiber, ginger 

* Rarely masculine. 



§61-63. THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. 25 

Exceptions in OR. 

<§> 6 1 • Arbor, a tree, is feminine : ador, fine wheat ; aquor, the sea ; 
marmor, marble ; and cor, the heart, are neuter. 

Exceptions in ES increasing in the genitive. 
1. The following are feminine : — 
Compes, a fetter. Quies, and Requies, rest. Teges, a mat. 

Merces, a reioard. Inquies, want of rest. 

Merges, a sheaf of corn. Seges, growing corn. 

2. Ales, a bird ; comes, a companion ; heres, an heir ; hospes, a guest ; 
interpres, an interpreter ; miles, a soldier ; obses, a hostage ; and satelles, 
a life-guard, are masculine or feminine. JEs, brass, is neuter. 

Exceptions in OS. 

Arbos, a tree ; cos, a whetstone ; dos, a dowry ; and eos, the morning, 
are feminine : os, the mouth, and os, a bone, are neuter; as are also the 
Greek words epos, epic poetry ; and melos, melody. 

FEMININES. 

§ 62. Nouns ending in as, es not increasing in the 
genitive, is, ys, s preceded by a consonant, and #, are 
feminine ; as, 

(Etas, age ; nubes, a cloud ; avis, a bird ; chlamys, a cloak ; 
trabs, a beam ; pax, peace. 

Exceptions in AS. 

1. As, a piece of money, or any thing divisible into twelve parts, is 
masculine. Greek nouns in as, antis, are also masculine ; as, addmas, 
adamant. 

2. Vas, a vessel, and Greek nouns in as, atis, are neuter ; as, artocreas, 
a pie ; buceras, a species of herb. 

Exceptions in ES not increasing in the genitive. 

Acindces, a cimeter, and coles, a stalk, are masculine. Antistes, palum- 
bes, vates, and vepres, are masculine or feminine. Cacoethes, kippomdnes, 
nepenthes, and pandces, Greek words, are neuter. 

Exceptions in IS. 
<§> 63. I. Latin nouns in nis are masculine or doubtful. 

Masculine. 
Crinis, hair. Ignis, fire. Panis, bread. Manes (plur.), departed spirits. 

Masculine or Feminine. 

Amnis, a river. Clunis, the haunch. Funis, a rope. 

Cinis, ashes, pi. m. Finis, <m end. Canis, a dog. 

Fines, (plur.), boundaries, is always masculine. 

3 



2(3 



THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. § 6i, 65. 



'2. The following also are masculine or feminine : — 
Anguis, a snake. bis, a basket. Tigris, a tiger. 
Can&Hs, a conduit pipe. Pal vis, dust, Torquis, u chain. 

Cenchris, a serpent. Scrobis, a ditch. Pollis, fine flour. 

3. The following are masculine : — 



n axletree. 
Aijualis, a water-pot. 
Callis, a putli. a 
Cassis, a net. 
Caulis, or ) . 
Colis, 1 UstalL 



Ensis, a sword. 

Fascis, n bundle. 

Follis, a pair of bellows. Semis, a half. 



Postis, a post. 
Sanguis, blood. 



V 



Sentis, a brier. ° 
Sodalis, a companion. 
Torris, a firebrand. 
Unguis, a nail. 
Vectis, a lever. 
Vermis, a worm. 
Vomis, a ploughshare. 



Fust is, a club. 

Glis, a dormouse. 

Lapis, a stone. ° 
Centussis, a compound Lemures, pi., spectres. 

of as. Mensis, a month. 

ColltS, a hill. Mugllis, a mullet. 

Cossis, a icorm. Orbis, a circle. 

Cucumis, a cucumber. Piscis, a jish. 
Decussis, a compound 
of as. 

Exceptions in S preceded by a consonant. 

V ^>4. 1. Dens, a tooth ; fans, a fountain ; mons, a mountain ; and 
pons, a bridge, are masculine. So also are chalybs, steel ; cllops, a kind 
of fish ; epops, a lapwing ; gryps, a griffin ; hydrops, the dropsy ; vicrops, 
a woodpecker, and rudens, a cable. 

2. Some nouns in ns, originally participles, and the compounds of dens, 
which are properly adjectives, are masculine ; as, confluens, a confluence ; 
ace i dens, the west; oriens, tbe east; torrens, a torrent; bidens, a two- 
pronged hoe ; but bidens, a sheep, and profluens, a stream, are feminine. 
To these add sextans, quadruns, trims, dodrans, dextans, parts of us. 

3. The following are either masculine or feminine : — 
Adeps, fatness. Seps, a kind of serpent. Serpens, a serpent. 

Forceps, pincers. Scrobs, a ditch. Stirps, the trunk of a tree. 

.1 ni mans, an animal, is feminine or neuter, and sometimes masculine. 

Exceptions in X. 

<§> 05. 1. AX. Corax, a raven ; cordax, a kind of dance; dropax, an 
ointment ; styrax, a kind of tree ; and thorax, a breastplate, are masculine ; 
Umax, a snail, is masculine or feminine. 

2. EX. Nouns in ex are masculine, except fax, dregs, forfcx, scissors, 
lex, a law, nex, death, prex, (obs.) prayer, and supcllex, furniture, which 
are feminine, and atriplex, golden-herb, which is neuter. 

Cortex, bark ; imbrex, a gutter-tile ; obex, a bolt ; rumex, sorrel ; and 
silex, a flint, are either masculine or 'feminine : grex, a herd, and pumez, 
pumice-stone, are very rarely found feminine. 

3. IX. Calif, a cup ; fornix, an arch; phoenix, a kind of bird ; and 
spadix, a palm-branch, are masculine : larix, the larch-tree, is masc. or fern. 

PerdiXyZ. partridge, and varix, a swollen vein, are masculine or feminine. 

4. OX. Box and esox, names of marine animals, are masculine. 

5. IX. Trad n. r, a vine-branch, is masculine. 



r - Rarely feminine. 



§66—68. THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 27 

6. Y\. Bombyx, a silk-worm ; calyx, \\\o bud of a flower; coccyx,* 
cuckoo ; ai!(l ori i . a v. ild goat, arc masculine. Onyx and sardonyx, names 
of stones ; also, calx, the heel, and calx, lime ; />//«.'■, a lynx, and sandyx, 

' of color, an- masculine or feminine. 

.'•, when it signifies silk, is feminine. 

7. Qjuincunx, septunx, decunx, deunx, parts of as t are masculine. 

N E U T E It S . 

*§> GG. Nouns ending in a, c, i, y, c, I, ?i, t, ar, ur\ and 
us j are neuter ; as, 

diadema, a crown ; retc, a net ; hydromeli, mead ; lac, milk ; 
vectigal, revenue; flumm a river; caput, the head; calcar, a 
spur ; guttur, the throat, and pectus, the breast. 

Exceptions in L anrf E. 

Mugil, a mullet, and 50/, the sun, are masculine. Sal, salt, is masculine 
or neuter, in the singular ; but, in the plural, it is always masculine. Ca\rc 
and Pncnestc are neuter or feminine. 

Exccjjtiojis in N. 
Nouns in n, except those in men, are masculine ; as, canon, 
a rule. 

liut four in on are feminine — acdnn, a nightingale ; halcyon, a king- 
fisher ; iron, an image; sindon, fine linen: and four in en are neuter — 
gluten, glue ; inguen, the groin ; pollen, fine flour ; and ungucn, ointment. 

Exceptions in AR o?zcZ UR. 

Y v) 7 . Furfur, bran ; salar, a trout; turtur, a turtle dove; and 
rultur, a vulture, are masculine. Baccar and robur, names of plants, are 
neuter. § 29. Tibar, a city, is masculine. 

Exceptions in US. 

Lcpus, a hare; and Greek nouns in p?*s (Trot's), are masculine ; as, tri- 
'pus, a tripod ; but lagopus, a white partridge, is feminine. 

Nouns in us, having utis, or uclis, in the genitive, are femi- 
nine; as, juvenilis, youth; incus, an anvil. 

Pecus, -itdis, a brute animal ; tcllvs, the earth ; fraus, fraud ; and Z«?/s, 
praise, are feminine. Pessinus, -nntis, is feminine, and rarefy masculine. 

Gms, a crane, 7nus, a mouse, and sus, a swine, are masculine or feminine. 



Rules for the Oblique Cases of Nouns of the 
Third Declension. 

GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

A. 

<§> 68. Nouns in a form their genitive in dtis ; as, di-a-de'- 
ma, di-a-dem'-d-tis, a crown ; dog'-ma, dog'-ma-tis, an opinion. 



98 THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. *^ 69. 70. 

E. 

Nouns in c change e into is ; as, rc'-tc, rc'-tis, a net ; sc-di'-h 
si-di -/is, a seat. 

I. 

Nouns in i are of Greek origin, and are generally indeclina- 
ble ; but Inj-drom'-c-U, mead, lias hyd-ro-mck-i-tis in the geni- 
tive. 

o. 

*§> GO. Nouns id o form their genitive in onis ; as, ser'-mo, 
scr-mo'-nis, speech ; pa'-vo, pa-vo'-nis, a peacock. 

Remark. Patriate in o have onis; as. Mari-do,-onis ; except Ebvrones, 
fjacdnes, Jones, Nasamdnes, Suessones, &c. See p. 267, Exc. Incr. in O, 3. 

Exc. 1. Nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, 
form their genitive in mis ; as, a-run'-do, a-run'-di-nis, a reed ; 
i-ma'-go, i-mag'-l-nis, an image. 

But comUdo, a glutton ; unedo, a kind of fruit ; and harpdgo, a hook, 
have onis. 

L'ardo, a hinge ; ordo, order ; grando, hail ; virgo, a virgin ; and margo. 
the brink of a river, also have Inis in the genitive. 

Exc. 2. The following, also, have inis: — A polio ; homo, a man; nemo. 
nobody ; and turbo, a whirlwind. 

Caro, flesh, has, by syncope, carnis. Anio, the name of a river, has 
Aniinis; Nerio, the wife of Mars, Aerienis ; from the old nominatives, 
Anien, Aericn. 

Exc. 3. Some Greek nouns in o form their genitive in us, and their 
other cases singular, in o; as, Dido, gen. Didus, dat. Dido, &c; 
Argo t -as ; but they are sometimes declined regularly ; as, Dido, Didduis, 

c. 

<§> TO. The only nouns in c are ha'-Icc, ha-U'-cis, a pickle, 
and lac, lac'-tis, milk. 

L. N. R. 
Nouns in I, n, and r, form their genitive by adding is ; as, 
con -sid, con'-su-lis, a consul ; ca'-non, caii-6-nis, a rule ; ho' -nor, 
ho-no'-ris, honor. 

So, An'-I-mal, an-i-ma'-lis, an animal, Cal'-car, cal-ca'-ri?:, a spur. 
Vi'-gil, vig'-I-lis, a watchman. Car'-cer, car'-ce-ris, a prison. 

Ti'-tan, Ti-ta'-nis, Titan. Gut'-tur, gut'-tu-ris, the throat. 

Si'-ren, si-re'-nis, a siren. Mar'-tyr, inar'-ty-ris, a martyr. 

Del'-phin, del-phi'-nis, a dolphin. 

Exceptions in L. 
Fel, gall, and mel, honey, double I before is; a.s,fellis, mellis. 



$71-73. THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 29 

Exceptions in N, 

$71. J. Neuters in en form their genitive in inis; as, 
fa -nun, flu'-mi-nis, a river; glu'-ten, glu'-ti-nis t glue. 

The following, also, form. their genitive in tnis : — oseen, a bird which 
foreboded by singing; peeten, a comb; ti&teen, a piper \ and tubuen, a 
trumpeter. 

2. Some Greek nouns in on form their genitive in otitis ; as, Laomtdon, 
Ldunudontis. Some in yu have ynis, or ynos; as, Trachun, Truchynos. 
Exceptions in R. 

1. Nouns in tcr drop e in the genitive ; as, pa'-tcr, pa'-tris, a 
father. So also imber, a shower, and names of months in her ; 
as, October, Octobris. 

But crater, a cup ; sotcr, a savior ; and later, a tile, retain e in the genitive. 

2. Far, corn, has /oris; hepar, the liver, hepdtis; iter, a journey, 
ituurls ; Jupiter, Jovis ; and cor, the heart, cordis. 

3. These four in ur have oWs in the genitive :—ebur, ivory ; femur, the 
thigh ; jeewr, the liver ; robur, strength. 

Jccur has also jeeinoris, and joe inoris. 

AS. 

$ 72. Nouns in as form their genitive in dtis ; as, te'-tas, 
a-ta-tis, age ; pi'-e-tas, pi-c-td'-tis, piety. 

Exc. 1. .45 has assis; mas, a male, maris; vas, a surety, aa^'s; and 
cuj, a vessel, ras/s. ^twjs, a duck, has andtis. 

Exc. 2. Greek nouns in as form their genitive according to th en- 
gender ; the masculines in antis, the feminines in ddis or ados, and the 
neuters in dtis; as, addmas, -antis, adamant ; lampas, -ddis, a lamp ; buce- 
ras, -dtis, a species of herb. Areas, an Arcadian, and Nomas, a Numidian, 
which are of the common gender, form their genitive in ddis. Melas, the 
name of a river, has Meldnis. 

ES. 

$73. Nouns in es form their genitive by changing es into 
is,**ts, or etis; as, ru'-pes, ru'-pis, a rock; mi'-les, mil'-i-tis, a 
soldier; se'-ges, seg'-e-tis, growing corn. 

A few Greek proper names in es (gen. is) sometimes form their geni 
tive in i, after the second declension ; as, Achilles, -is, or -i. 

Those which make Ids are, 
Ales a bird. Gurges, a whirlpool. Poples, the ham. 

Amos, a fmcler s staff. Hospes, a guest. Satelles, a lifeguard. 

Antistes a priest. Limes, a limit. Stipes, the stock of a tree. 

Cespes, a turf. Merges, a sheaf of corn. Termes, an olive bough. 

Comes,' a companion. Wiles, a soldier. Trames, a path. 

Equea a horseman. Palmes, a vine-branch. Tudesfa hammer, [if tcr. 

Fomes, fuel. Pedes, a footman. Veles, a light armed sol- 

The following have ids :—abies, a fir-tree ; aries, a ram ; indlges, a man 
deified ; interprcs, an interpreter ; paries, a wall ; seges. growing corn : 

and teges, a mat. 

^ ' Q (a) is or Ihs. 



so 



THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. § 74 75, 



The following have etls:—Cres, a Cretan ; lebes, a caldron ; magnes, a 
loadstone; quics and requies, rest; and tapes, tapestry. But realties is 
Sometimes of the fifth declension. 

Some Greek proper names have either etis or is in the genitive ; as, 
Lhrcmcs,-ctis, or -is. Dares, -etis, or -is. 

Exc. 1. Obses, a hostage, and prases, a president, have 2</is. 

Exc. 2. Heres, an heir, and merccs, a reward, have edis; pes, afoot 
and its compounds, have edis. 

Exc. 3. Ceres has Cereris; bes, bessis; and pros, a surety, pnzdw. 
.&s, brass, has eeris. l 



IS. 

$74. Nouns in is have their genitive the same as the 
nominative; as, au'-ris, au'-ris, the ear; a'-vis, a'-vis, a 
bird. 

Exc. 1. The following have the genitive in eris :—cinis, ashes ; cucumis. 
a cucumber: pulvis, dust; vomis or vomer, a ploughshare. 

Exc. 2. The following have Uis :—capis, a cup; cassis, a helmet; 
cuspis, the point of a spear; lapis, a stone ; and promulsis, an antepast. 

Exc. 3. Two have %nis -.—pollis, fine flour, and sanguis, blood. 

Exc. 4. Four have Uis :~Dis, Pluto ; to, strife ; Quiris. a Roman ; and 
&im,nis, a Samnite. 

Exc. 5. Glis, a dormouse, has gliris. 

Greek nouns in is form their genitive, 



1. in is, or eos; as, 
Basis, ike foot of a pillar 
Hasresis, heresy. 
Metropolis, a chief city. 
Phrasis, a phrase. 
Phthisis, a consumption. 
Poesis, poetry. 



2. in Idis, or idos ; as, 3. in ims ; 

iEgis, a shield. Delphis or 

iEneis, the JEneid. Delphin. 

Aspis, an asp. Salamis. 

Ephemeras, a day-book 

Ins, the rainbow. 4. mentis; as, 

Nereis, a Kereid. Simois. 

Pyramis, a pyramid 

Tigris, a tiger. 

Tyrannis, tyranny. 
Tigris has sometimes the genitive like the nominative. 
Chans, one of the Graces, has Uis. 

OS. 

§ 75. Nouns in os form their genitive in oris or otis ; as, 
flos,fio'-ris, a flower; nc'-pos, nc-po'-tis, a grandchild. 
The following have oris : — 

Flos, afioicer. Labos or labor, labor. Os, the mouth. 

Glos, a husband's sister. Lepos orlepor, wit. Ros, dew. 

iionos or honor, honor. Mos, a custom. 

Arbos or arbor, a tree, has oris. 
The following have otis : — 

Cos, a whetstone. Monocgros, a unicorn. Nepos, a arandchild. 

Dos, a dowry. Rhinoceros, a rhinoceros. Sacerdos, a priest. 



$ 76, 77. THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 



31 



Exc. 1. Gustos , a keeper, has custodis ; bos,&n ox, bovis ; and os, a 
bone, ossis. 

Exc. 2. Some Greek substantives in os have ois in the genitive ; as, 
Aero*, a hero ; Minos ; Tros, a Trojan. 

US. 
§ 76. Nouns in us form their genitive in eris or dm ; as, 
ge'-nus, gen'-e-ris, a kind ; tem'-pus, tem'-po-ris, time. 

Those which make dris are, 

Corpus, a body. Lepus, a Aare. Pectus, the breast. 

Decus, /to«or. Littus, a s/tore. Pignus, « /?Ze^e. 

Dedecus, disgrace. Nemus, a grove. Stercus, dung. 

Facinus, an exploit. Pecus, cattle. Tempus, time. 

Fcenus, interest. Penus, provisions. Tergus, a hide. 

Frigus, cold. 
Exc. 1. These three have udis ;— incus. / an anvil; palus, a morass; 
and subscus, a dove-tail. 

Pecus, a brute animal, has pecudis. 

Exc . 2. These five have utis .—juventus, youth ; salus, safety ; senectus t 
old age ; servltus, slavery ; virtus, virtue. 

Exc. 3. Monosyllables in us have uris ; as, crus, the leg; jus, right; 
mus, a mouse ; pus, matter ; rw^, the country ; thus, frankincense ; except 
grus, a crane, and sus, a swine, which have grids, and suis. 

Tellus, the earth, has teUuris ; and Ligus or w, a Ligurian, has Liguns. 
Exc. 4. Fraus, fraud, and Jaws, praise, have fraudis, laudis. 
Exc. 5. Greek nouns in pus (nov$) have odis ; as, fWpws, tripodis, a 
tripod ; (Edipus, -odis, which is sometimes of the second declension. 

Exc. 6. Some Greek names of cities in us have untis ; as, Trapezus t 
Trapezuntis ; Opus, -untis ; Pesslnus, -untis. 

Exc. 7. Nouns ending in eus are all proper names, and have their gen- 
itive in eos; as, Orpheus, -eos. But these nouns are found also in the 
second declension ; as, Orpheus, -ei or -I. 

YS. 
«§> 77. Nouns in ys are Greek, and, in the genitive, some 
have yis or yos, some ydis or ydos ; as, 

Ca'-pys, Ca'-py-is or -os, chla'-mys, chlam'-y-dis or -dos, a cloak. 

S preceded by a consonant. 

Nouns in s, with a consonant before it, form their genitive 
by changing s into is or tis ; as, trabs, tra'-bis, a beam ; hi'-ems, 
hi'-e-mis, winter ; pars, par'-tis, a part ; frons, frori-tis f the 
forehead. 

Those in 6.5, ms, and ps, change s into is ; except gryps, a 
griffin, which has gryphis. 

Remark. Those in eps also change e into t; as, princeps, principis, a 
prince. But seps has sepis, and auceps, auvtopis. 

Those in ?s, ns, and rs, change s into tis. 



32 THIRD DECLENSION. DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 

Exc. 1. The following in ns change s into dis -.—frons, a leaf; glans, 
an acorn ; juglans, a walnut ; lens, a nit; and libripens, a weigher. . 
Exc. 2. Tiryns, a Greek proper name, has Tirynthis in the genitive. 

T. 

§ 78. Nouns in £ form their genitive in itis. They are, 
caput, the head, gen. cap'-i-tis ; and its compounds, occiput 
and sinciput. 

X. 

Nouns in x form their genitive by changing x into ess or gis ; 
as, woz, wo'-cfs, the voice ; con'-jux, con'-jii-gis, a spouse. 

So, for'-nax, for-nd'-cis, a furnace; ca'-lix, caV-i-cis, a cup; cer'-vix. 
cer-vl'-cis, the neck. ' 

Those which make gis are, c<m>x, a spouse ; .grez, a fleck ; lex, a law ; 
rc??iez, -io-is. a rower ; rex, a king. 

Also the following : — 
Allobrox, -ogis, an Alio- Dumnorix, -Tgis. Phalanx, -gis, a phalanx. 

brogian.^ Eporedorix, -igis. Phryx,-gis,a Phrygian. 

Ambionx, -igis. Exlex, -egis, an outlaw. Sphinx, -gis, a sphinx. 

Aamlex, -tgis, a spring Frux, -gis, fruit. Strix, -gis, a screech-owl. 

hunter. _ la pyx, -ygis, the north- Stvx. -gis, the river Styx. 

Bitunx, -igis, a Bituri- xcest wind. Syrinx, -gis, tyr^z. 

£7G?i. _ _ Orgetorix. -igis. Vercingetorix, -igis. 

Coccyx, -ygis, a cuckoo. Oryx, -ygis, a icildgoat. 

Exc. 1. Nouns in ex, of more than one syllable, form their 
genitive in ids ; as, pollex, -ids, the thumb. 

Except fmusex, a mower; narthcx, a shrub; resex, a vine-branch • 
vertex, a wether ; and aqullex, exlcx, and remex. 

Exc . 2. Supellex, furniture, has supellectilis ; and senex, an old man. has 
senis. A ix, snow, has nivis ; and rcoz, night, noctis. 

Exc 3. Some Greek proper names in ax form their genitive in actis ; 
as, dstyanax, actis. So fly/az, £*mz, Demonax. 

onljchis 4 ' ° mJX and ^^ haye y° ld3 in tlie genitive; as, onyx, 

DATIVE SINGULAR. 

§79. The dative singular ends in/; as, sermo, dat. sermoni. 
Anciently it also ended in e; as, morte dolus. Varr. apud 
(jell. x 

ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 
The accusative singular, with the exception of neuters, ends 
m cm. let some Latin words in is, which do not increase m 
the genitive, have im, and some Greek words have im, in, or a. 
,2' ^ any VV ° Ve i name - S in "' den °ting places, rivers, or gods, have the 
SS V £ S / ng ^" - n S« ^ H ^P^l^ ^erL, .4«fi6w; so also Albis, 
imnkt atl8 \ Ar t l ns > Bm Vs, Apis, Osiris, SlJ rtis, &c. These some- 
times, also, make the accusative in in ; as, Alhin. 



<§> 80. THIRD DECLENSION. ACCUSATIVE. 33 

2. The following also have the accusative in im:— 
Amussis, a mason's rule. Mephitis, foul air. Sitis, thirst 
Buris, a plough-tail. Ravis, hoarseness. Tussis, a cough. 
Cannabis, hemp. Sinapis, mustard. Vis, strength. 
Cucumis, a cucumber. 

3. These have im, and sometimes em : — 

Febris, a fever. Restis, a rope. Turris, a tower. 

Puppis, the stern. Securis, an axe. 

But these have em, and rarely im : — 

Bipennis, a battle-axe. Navis, a ship. Praesepis, a stall. 

Clavis, a key. Ovis, a sheep. Sementis, a sowing 

Messis, a harvest. Pelvis, a basin. Strigilis, a flesh-brush. 

Crates, a hurdle, and lens, a lentil, have also sometimes im, as if from 
cratis and lends. . . 

The ancients formed the accusative of some other nouns m im. 

Accusative of Greek Nouns. 

$ 80. The accusative singular of Greek nouns sometimes 
retains the Greek terminations in and a, but often ends, as in 
Latin, in em or im. 

I Greek nouns, whose genitive increases in is or os, impure, that is, 
With a consonant going before, have their accusative in em or a; as, lampas 
(lampddis or -dos), lampada; chlamys,chlamydem, or -yda; pyramis,py- 
ramidem. . „ 

In like manner these three, which have is pure m the genitive— 1 ros, 
Trois, Troem, and Troa, a Trojan ; heros, a hero ; and Minos, a king of 

Crete. ,'vV- ■, -U 

* Mr, the air ; other, the sky ; delphin, a dolphin ; and paan, a hymn, 
have usually a; as, aera, cethera, delphlna, padna. Pan, a god, has 
only a. 

Exc. 1. Masculines in is, whose genitive increases in is or os impure, 
have their accusative in im or in; sometimes in idem; Paris, Paridis or 
Paridos ; Parim, Parin or Paridem. 

Exc. 2. Feminines in is, increasing impurely in the genitive, though 
they usually follow the rule, have sometimes im or in; as, Elis, Elidis ; 
Elidem, seldom Elin. . . . . r 

So Tigris, signifying a river or a beast, has tigridem or tigrim ; sigmiy- 
ing a beast, it has tigrin also. 

II Greek nouns in is and ys, having is or os pure in the genitive, form 
their accusative by changing the s of the nominative into m or n ; as, 
Charybdis, (gen. Lat. -is, Gr. -awg or -eog,) ace. Charybdim or -in; Halys, 
-yis or -yos, Halym or -yn. 

III. Nouns ending in the diphthong eus have the accusative in ea ; as, 
Theseus, Thesea ; Tydcus, Tydea. See § 54. 

Demosthenes and Ganymedes, have sometimes in the accusative, besides 
cm the terminative ea. Diomede is contracted from -ea, Virg. 

IV Some Greek proper names in es, whose genitive is in is, have in 
Latin, along with the accusative in em, the termination en, as if of the 



34 THIRD DECLENSION VOCATIVE AND ABLATIVE. <§>S1,82. 

declension; as, Achilles, AchUlen; Xerxes, Xerxen; Sophocles, So- 
■'(. Some also, which bave either etis or is in the genitive, have, 
m, eta, or (in, the termination </>; us, Crcmcs, Tkales. 

VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 

^ SI. The vocative is like the nominative. 
Many Greek nouns, however, particularly proper names, drop s of the 
nominative to form the vocative; as, Daphnis, Daphni ; Tcthys, Tethy ; 
Melampus, Melampu j Orpheus, Orpheu. Proper names in es (gen. t*) 
sometimes have their vocative in e; as, Socrates, Socrate. 

ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 
$ S*2. The ablative singular ends in e. 
Exc. 1. Neuters in e, al, and ar, have the ablative in i; 
as, sedile, sedili; animal, animali; calcar, calcdri. 

But names of towns in e, and the following- neuters in ar, have e in the 
ablative ; viz. bacchar, an herb ; far, corn ; hepar, the liver ; juhar, a sun- 
beam ; nectar, nectar ; par, a pair ; sal, salt. Rete, a net, has "cither e or i; 
and marc, the sea, has in poetry mare in the ablative. 

Exc. 2. Nouns which have im or in in the accusative, and 
names of months in cr or is, have i in the ablative ; as, vis, vim, 
vi : December, Dcccmbri ; Aprilis, Aprili. 

Bat BcbHs, c/uniabis, and tigris, have c or i. 

Exc. M. Nouns which have em or im in the accusative, have 
their ablative in e or i ; as, turris, turre or furrt. 

But resits, and Greek nouns which have idis in the genitive, have c 
only ; as, Pons, -nils, -ule. ' 

Exc. 4. Adjectives in is, used as nouns, have commonly i 
in the ablative, but sometimes e; as, familidris, a friend; 
natalis, a birthday ; sodalis, a companion ; triremis, a trireme.' 
When such adjectives become proper names, they always have e : as 
Jueen&hs, JwoenaUt. Also, ojfims and aftfts have generally e; as have 
always jur, nis % a youth ; rudis, a rod ; and volucris, a bird. 

Exc. 5. Thy following, though they have only cm in the accusative 
nave t or i in the ablative, hut oftener e: — 

Amnis, (Missis, Ignis, Pars, Supellex, 

A,, - ,i,s ' S. oll "S Imber, Postis, Tridens, 

Mugilis, Pugil, UnoW 

(ms ' '"^ OrbTs, SorV Vectis. 

Occiput, n/s, and peeper have also c or £. 

S„ also nanus of towns, denoting the place where any thing is said to 
".' I',' '" , "' <i ' l " 1 ' ■' ^^ive in i; as, CarthaJlni at 

Carthage ; and, ,„ the rnosl ancient liters, many other nouns occur w ,3i 
tins termination in the ablative. Canatis has i, and very rarely 7 

Exc. 6. Nouns in ys, which have ym or y« in the accusative have 
their ablaUve in ,,,. or y ; as, . <,,,,-, .;/,,, , or ^* uve ' nave 



$83,84. THIRD DECLENSION. PLURAL CASES. 35 

NOMINATIVE PLURAL. 

§ S3. The nominative plural of masculines and feminines 

ends in es ; as, sermones, rupes ; — but neuters have a, and those 
whose ablative singular ends in i have ia ; as, caput, capita; 
tedile, sedilia. Aplustre has both a and ia. 

Some Greek neuters have c in the nominative plural ; as, vidos ; nom. 
plural, mele. So Tempe. 

GENITIVE PLURAL. 

The genitive plural commonly ends in um ; sometimes in ium. 

1. Nouns which, in the ablative singular, have i only, or e 
and i, make the genitive plural in ium ; as, sedile, scdili, sedil- 
ium ; turriSj turre or turri, turrium. 

2. Nouns in es and is, which do not increase in the genitive 
singular, have ium; as, nubes, nubium ; Jiostis, liostium. 

Exc. Cants, juvi nis, mugilis, proles, strues, vatcs, have um ; so oftener 
have apis, slrigilis, volucris ; less frequently mensis, panis, sedes, and, in 
the poets only, cades, clades, ambages, and the adjectives viridis and 
agrestis. 

3. Monosyllables ending in two consonants have ium in the 
genitive plural ; as, urbs, urbium ; gens, gentium ; arx, arcium. 

Exc. Lynx and ops (obsolete) have um. 

The following, also, have ium : — as, mas, glis, Us, os (ossis), faux, nix, 
nox, strlx, dos, generally fraus and mus, and sometimes lar. 

4. Nouns of two or more syllables, in ns or rs, and names 
of nations in as, have commonly ium; as, cliens, clientium ; 
Arpinas, Arpinatium. 

Other nouns in as have sometimes ium; as, atas, atatium. Penates 
and optimdtes have usually ium. 

5. The following have ium :—caro, linter, imber, uter, venter, Samnis, 
(lair is, and usually Insxtber. Fornax, lar, and palus, have sometimes ium. 

6. Greek nouns have generally um ; as, Thrax, Thracum ; — but a few, 
used as titles of books, have sometimes on; as, Epigramma, epigrammd- 
tdn; Metamorphosis, -eon. 

Remark 1. Bos has bourn in the genitive plural. 

Remark 2. Nouns which want the singular, form the genitive plural 
as if they were complete; as, manes, manium; cadites, coditum; as if 
from manis and cosies. So also names of feasts in alia; as, Saturnalia, 
Saturnalium ; but these have sometimes drum after the second declension. 
Jilcs has sometimes, by epenthesis, alituum. See § § 322, 333. 

DATIVE AND ABLATIVE PLURAL. 
$ 84. The dative and ablative plural end in ibus. 
Exc. 1. Bos has bobus and bubus, by contraction for bovibus ; SUS has 
subus for sulbus. 



36 THIRD DECLENSIOxV. ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. $85, 86. 

Exc. 2. Greek nouns in ma have the dative and ablative plural more 
frequently in is than in Ibus; as, poema, poemdtis, or poematibus. 

The poets sometimes form the dative plural of Greek nouns, that in- 
crease in the genitive, in si, and, before a vowel, in sin ; as, herois, kerat- 
itis, heruisi, or heroism. So in Quintilian, Metamorphose si. 

ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 
<§> 85. The accusative plural ends, like the nominative, in 
es, a, or ia. 

Exc. 1. Masculine and feminine nouns which have ium in the genitive 
plural, have sometimes in the accusative plural eis, or is, instead of es ; 
as, partes, gen. portium, ace. partes, parteis or partis. 

Exc. 2. When the accusative singular of Greek nouns not neuter ends 
in a, the accusative plural ends in as; as, lamp as, lamp ada, lampadas. 
So, also, in some barbarian names of nations ; as, Brigantas. 



Jupiter, and vis, strength, are thus declined : — 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. Ju'-pi-ter, 


N. vis, 


vi'-res, 


G. Jo'-vis, 


G. vis, 


vir'-i-um, 


D. Jo'-vi, 


D. — 


vir'-i-bus, 


Ac. Jo'-vem, 


Ac. vim, 


vi'-res, 


V. Ju'-pi-ter, 


V. vis, 


vi'-res, 


Ab. Jo'-ve. 


Ab. vi. 


vir'-i-bus. 



<§> 86. The following table exhibits the principal forms of 
Greek nouns of the third declension : — 





Norn. 


Gen. 




Dat. 


Ace. 


Voc. 


Abl. 


s. 


Lampas, 


(-adis, 
( -ados, 


j 


-adi, 


(-adem,) 
(-ada, S 


-as, 


-ade. 


PI 


-ades, 


-adum, 




-adibus, 


(-ades, ) 
}-adas, ) 


-ades, 


-adibus. 


s. 


Heros, 


-ois, 




-oi, 


(-oem, ) 
(-6a, ) 


-OS, 


-6e. 


PL 


-oes, 


-oum, 




-olbus, 


\ -oes, > 


-oes, 


-olbus. 




Chelys, 


$-y is > 

*-yos, 


\ 


-fh 


e-yn, s 


-y> 


-ye or y 




Poesis, 


(-is, -Tos 
( -eos, 


\ 


-i, 


c-im, ) 
(-in, ) 


-i, 


-i. 




Achilles, 


<-is,-ei,- 
( -eos, 


'I 


-i, 


(-em, > 
i-ea,-en) 


-es,-e, 


-e or -i. 




Orpheus, 


-eos, 




-ei, 


-ea, 


-eu, 


See §54. 




Aer, 


-eris, 




-eri, 


-era, 


-er, 


-ere. 




Dido, 


-us, 




-o, 


"0| 


-o, 


-0. 



I 87-89. 



FOUHTII DECLENSION. 



37 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



<§> 87. Nouns of the fourth declension end in us and u. 
Those in us are masculine ; those in u are neuter, and 
■declinable in the singular number, except in the genitive. 

Nouns of this declension are thus declined : — 



Fructus, fruit. 



Singular. 
V. fruc'-tus, 
fruc'-tus, 
! ). fruc'-tu-i,* 
\c. fruc'-tum, 
V. fruc'-tus, 
ib. fruc'-tu. 



Plural. 
fruc'-tus, 
fruc'-tu-um,* 
fruc'-tt-bus, 
fruc'-tus, 
fruc'-tus, 
fruc'-tl-bus. 



Cornu, a horn. 

Plural. 



Singular. 
N. cor'-nu, 
G. cor '-nus, 
D. cor'-nu, 
Ac. cor'-nu, 
V. cor'-nu, 
Ab. cor'-nu. 



cor'-nu-a, 

cor'-nu-um, 

cor'-ni-bus, 

cor'-nu-a, 

cor'-nu-a, 

cor'-ni-bus. 



In like manner decline 

Can'-tus, a song. Fluc'-tus, a wave. Se-na'-tus, the senate. 

Cur'-rus, a chariot. Luc'-tus, grief. Ge'-lu, ice. 

Ex-er'-cl-tus, an army. Mo'-tus, motion. Ve'-ru, a spit. 

Exceptions in Gender. 

$ 88. 1. The following are feminine : — 

• Acus, a needle. Ficus, a Jig. Porticus, a gallery. 

Domus, a house. Manus, a hand. Tribus, a tribe. 

The plurals quinquatrus, a feast of Minerva, and idus, the ides, are 
Iso feminine. So also noctu, by night, found only in the abl. sing. 

Penvs. a store of provisions, when of the fourth declension, is masculine 
r feminine. Seats, sex, is neuter; see § 94. 

Specus, a den, is very rarely feminine or neuter. 

2. Some personal appellatives, and names of trees, are femi- 
ine bv signification. See $ 29, 1 and 2. 



Exceptions in Declension. 

<§> 89. 1. Domus, a house, is partly of the fourth declension, 
nd partly of the second. It is thus declined : — 



Singular. 
JV\ Do'-mus, 
G. do'-mus, or do'-mi, 
D. dom'-u-i, or do'-mo, 
Ac. do'-mum, 
V. do'-mus, 
jib. do'-mo. 



Plural. 
do'-mus, 

dom'-u-um, or do-mo'-rum, 
dom'-I-bus, 
do'-mus, or do r -mos, 
do'-mus, 
dom'-I-bus. 



* 4 Pronounced/rttc*'-j/u-£, orfruc'-tshuri, &c. $20. Exc. (c.) 



38 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



s^ ( Ju. 



Domus, in the genitive . signifies, of a house; domi commonly signifies, 
at borne. The ablative aomu is found in Flautus, in some copies of Livy, 
and in ancient inscriptions. 

Cornus, a cornel-tree; Jicus, a fig-tree; launis, a laurel ; and myrtus a 
myrtle, are sometimes of the second declension. Penus is sometimes 
of the third. 

Bome nouns in u have also forms in us and urn; as, cornu, cornus, or 
cumum. Adjectives, compounds of mainta, are of the 1st and 2d declensions. 

Remark. Nouns of this declension anciently belonged to the third, 
and were formed by contraction, thus : — 

Singular. Plural. 

AT. Fructus, fructues, -us, 

G. fructuis, -us, fructuum, -lim, 

D. fructui, -u, fructuibus, -ubus, or -Ibus, 

Ac. fructuem, -um, fructues, -us, 

V fructus, fructues, -us, 

Ab. fructue, -u. fructuibus, -ubus, or -Ibus. 

2. The genitive singular in is is sometimes found in ancient authors. 
A genitive in t, after the second declension, also occurs ; as, sendtus, 
scruiti ; tumultus, tuwulti- 

3. The contracted form of the dative in u is not often used ; yet it 
sometimes occurs, especially in Caesar, and in the poets. 

4. The contracted form of the genitive plural in um rarely occurs. 

5. The following nouns have ubus in the dative and ablative 
plural : — 

Acus, a needle. Lacus, a lake. Specus, a den. 

Arcus, a bow. Partus, a birth. Tribus, a tribe. 

Artus, a joint. Pecu, a flock. 

Genu, a knee ; portxis, a harbor ; tonitrus, thunder ; and vcru, a spit, 
have Ibus or ubus. 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



$ 90. Nouns of the fifth declension end in es, and are 
of the feminine gender. 



Dies, a day. 
Singular. Plural. 



They are thuc 


declined ■ 


Res, a 


thing. 


Singular. 

N. res, 


Plural 

res, 


G. re'-i, 
D. re'-i, 


re'-rum, 
re'-bus, 


Ac rem, 


res, 


V. res, 
Ab. re. 


res, 
rc'-bus. 



N. di'-es, 
G. di-e'-i, 
J), di-e'-i, 
Ac. di'-em, 
V. di'-es, 
Ab. di'-e. 



di'-es, 

di-e'-rum, 

di-e'-bus, 

di'-es, 

di'-es, 

di-e'-bus. 



§91,92. COMPOUND NOUNS. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 39 

Exceptions in Gender. 

Dies, a day, is masculine or feminine in the singular, and 
always masculine in the plural ; mer idies, mid-day, is mascu- 
line only 

Exceptions in Declension. 

The genitive and dative singular sometimes end in e; as, die for diet. 
The genitive is sometimes also found in es ; as, rabies, gen. rabies, Lucr., 
and the genitive and dative in i; as, gen. dii, Virg. ; dat. pernicu, Nep. 

Rfmark 1. There are only about eighty nouns of this declension, and 
of these only two, res and dies, are complete in the plural. Acies, effigies, 
eluvics, fades, glades, progenies, series, species, spes, want the genitive, 
dative, and ablative plural, and the rest want the plural altogether. 

2. All nouns of this declension end in ies, except four—; fides, faith ; 
res, a thing ; „pes, hope ; and plebes, the common people ; — and all nouns 
in ies are of this declension, except abics, aries, paries, and quies, which 
are of the third declension, and requies, which is of the third and fifth. 

Declension of Compound Nouns. 

§91. When a compound noun consists of two nomina- 
tives, both parts are declined ; but when one part is a nomina- 
tive,' and the other an oblique case, the nominative only is 
declined. Of the former kind are respubUca, a commonwealth, 
and jusjurandum, an oath; of the latter, mater-familias, a 
mistress of a family. 

Singular. Plural. 

JV. res-pub'-li-ca, res-pub'-ll-cae, 

G. re-i-pub'-li-cse, re-rum-pub-li-ca'-rum, 

D. re-i-pub'-lt-cce, re-bus-pub'-ll-cis, 

Ac. rem-pub'-li-cam, res-pub'-li-cas, 

V. res-pub'-li-ca, res-pub'-ll-cse, 

Ah. re-pub'-li-ca. re-bus-pub'-ll-cis. 

Singular. Plural. 

JV. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da 

G. ju-ris-ju-ran -di, 

D. ju-ri-ju-ran'-do, 



Ac. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da, 
V. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da. 
Jib. ju-re-ju-ran'-do. 



Singular. 
JV. ma-ter-fa-mil'-i-as, 
G. ma-tris-fa-mil'-i-as, 
D. ma-tri-fa-mil'-i-as, 
Ac. ma-trem-fa-mil'-i-as, 
V. ma-ter-fa-mil'-i-as, 
Ab. ma-tre-fa-mil'-i-as, &*. 



Note. The preceding compounds are divided and pronounced like the 
simple words of which tney are compounded. 

IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
<§, 92. Irregular nouns are divided into three classes — 
Variable, Defective, and Redundant. 



40 VARIABLE NOUNS. $93. 






I. VARIABLE NOUNS. 

Nouns are variable either in (render or declension, or in both. 
Those which vary in gender are called heterogeneous ; those 
which vary in declension are called heteroclites. 

Heterogeneous Nouns. 

1. Masculine in the singular, and neuter in the plural ; such 

are, 

A vermis, Ismarus, Msenalus, Tartarus, 

Dindymus, Massicus, Pangaeus, Taygetus. 

Plural, Avcrna, &,c. 

2. Masculine in the singular, and masculine or neuter in the 
plural ; as, jocus, a jest; plur. joci, or joca ; — locus, a place ; 
plur. loci, passages in books, topics, places; loca, places; sib- 
ilus, a hissing ; plur. sibila, rarely sibili. 

3. Feminine in the singular, and neuter in the plural ; as, 
tarbasus, a species of flax ; plur. carbasa, very rarely carbdsos, 
sails, &c, made of it ; — Hicrosolyma, -cc, Jerusalem ; plur. 
llii ro<olyma, -drum. 

4. Neuter in the singular, and masculine in the plural; as, 
coelum, heaven; plur. emit; — Elysium; plur. Elysii ; — Argos ; 
plur. Argi. So siser, n., plur. siseres, m. 

5. Neuter in the singular, and masculine or neuter in the 
plural ; as, frcnum, a bridle ; plur. freni or frena; — rostrum, 
a rake; plur. rastri, or rastra; — jjugillar, a writing tablet; 
plur. pugilldres, or pugillaria. 

6. Neuter in the singular, and feminine in the plural; as, 
epulum, a feast; plur. epulm ; — balneum, a bath; plur. balnea, 
rarely balnea ; — nundinum, a market-day ; plur. nundincc, a fair. 

7. Feminine or neuter in the singular, and feminine in the 
plural ; as, dclicia or delictum, delight ; plur. delieicE. 

Heteroclites. 

$ 03. 1. Second or third declension in the singular, and 
third in the plural : as, jugerum, an acre ; gen. jugeri, or 
jugeris; M.jugere; plur., nom., and ncc.jugera; gen. juge- 
rum ; abl. jugeris and jugeribus^ from the obsolete jugus or 

jug, r. 

2. Third declension in (he singular, and second in the plural ; 



* 01. 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



41 



as, oas t a vessel; plur. vasa, drum. Ancile, a shield, has some- 
times (uicilidruin, in the genitive plural. 

Note. Variable nouns seem anciently to have been redundant, and to 
have retained a part of each of their original forms. Thus, vasa, -drum.) 
properly comes from vasum, -i, but the latter, together with the plural of 
vas, vasis, became obsolete. 



II. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
§ 94. Nouns are defective either in case or number. 

1. Nouns defective in case may want either one or more 
cases. Some are altogether indeclinable, and are called aptotes. 

Such nro pondo, pounds, used only in the plural: most nouns in i : 
foreign words: semis, a half: git, a seed: cepe, an onion : the singular of 
mille, a thousand : words put for nouns ; as, velle suum, for sua voluntas , 
his own inclination : and names of the letters of the alphabet. 

A noun which is found in one case only, is called a Monop- 
totc ; if found in two cases, a Diploic; if in three, a Triptote; 
if in four, a Tetraptote ; and if in five, a Pcntaptote. 

The following list contains most nouns defective in case : — 



Ab.ictus, ace. pi. ; a driving away. 
Accltu, all. ; a calling for. 
Admissu, abl. ; admission. 
Admonitu, abl. ; admonition. 
jEs, not used in gen. pi. 
Affatu, aid. ; an addressing ; — pi. 

affatus, -Ibus. 
Algus, nam. ; algum, ace. ; algu, or 

-o, abl. ; cold. 
Ambage, abl.; a tcinding story; — 

pi. entire. 
Amissum, ace. ; a loss. 
Aplustre, nom. and ace; the flag of 

a ship; — pi. aplustria, or aplustra. 
Arbitratus, nom. ; -um, ace. ; -u, 

abl.; judgment. 
Arcessltu, abl. ; a sending for. 
Astu, nom., ace. ; a city. 
Astus, nom.; astu, abl. ; craft; — 

astus, ace. pi. 
Cacoethes, nom., ace. ; an evil cus- 
tom ; — cacoethe, nom. pi.; -e, 

and -es, ace. pi. 
Cetos, ace.; a whale; — cete, nom. 

and ace. pi. 
Chaos, nom., ace. chao, abl.; chaos ; 
Cassem, ace.; casse, abl.; a net; 

pi. entire. [looking around. 

Circumspectus, nom. ; -um ; -u ; a 
Coactu, abl. ; constraint. 
4* 



Coalite, abl.; pi. entire, inhabitants 
of heaven. 

Commutatum, ace. ; an alteration. 

Compedis, gen. ; compede, abl. ; a 
fetter ; — ^Z.compedes,-ium,-ibus. 

Concessu, abl. ; permission. 

Condiscipulatu, abl. ; companion- 
ship at school. 

Cratim, or -em, ace. ; -e, abl. ; a hur- 
dle ; — pi. crates, -ium, -Ibus. 

Daps, nom., scarcely used ; dapis, 
gen. &c. ; a feast. 

Datu, abl. ; a giving. 

Derisui, dat. ; -um, ace; -u, abl.; 
ridicule. 

Despicatui, dat. ; contempt. 

Dica, nom. ; dicam, ace. ; a legal 
process; — dicas, acc.pl. 

Dicis, gen. ; as, dicis gratia, for 
form's sake. 

Ditionis, gen. ; -i, dat. ; -em, ace.; 
-e, abl.; power. 

Diu, abl. ; in the day time. 

Divisui, dat. ; a dividing. 

Ebur, ivory ; — not used in the gen. t 
dat., and abl. pi. 

Efflagitatu, abl. ; importunity. 

Ejectus, nom.; a throwing out. 

Epos, ace. ; an epic poem. 

Ergo, abl. ; for the sake. 



42 



nr.l'KCTIVE NOUNS. 



§ 94. 



tus nom. ; a conveyance, 

. wants gi it. pi. 
not u ■ (1 in Die gen., 
tint., and abl. pi. 

i ■ .' . ace. : right. 

■ . ; t i throat $— plural, en- 
tire. 

torch, wants ^n. ^Z. 

Femlnis, gen. j -\,dat.; -o, abl. ; the 

thigh ; — pi. femlna, -Tbua. 
Plictu, abl. ; n striking. 

UBM. and gen. ; -em, ace; 

~e } abl.; a iliiur ; — pi. entire. 
Fore, nom.; -Us, gen.; -tern, ace; 

-i.-. a 1 1 . ; chance. 
Frustratui, abl. ; a deceiving. 
Frux, fruit t num., scarcely used; — 

frugis, <_!• ".. <fcc. 

pe, i una., ace, abl.; a rough 

garment : — gausapa, ace. pi. 
nom., roc. ; a husband's sister. 
1 i, ace. pi.; — gratibus, all.; 

thanks. 
Hiems, winter, not used in gen., 

and abl. pi. 
1 [ippomanes, nam. 
llir. num. and ace. ; the palm of the 

hand. 
Hortatu, all.; an exhorting; — pi. 

hortatibns. 
linn. itis, ir, a. ; -o,ahl.; a shock; — pi. 

impetibus. 
Inconsultu, abl. ; without advice. 
[ncitas, or -:i,ace pi. ; o^.adincltas 

redact us, reduced to a strait. 
fndultu, nil. : indulgence. 
InferiiB, nam. pi. ; -as, ace. ; sacrifices 

to tin ilc ad. 
Inficias, acc.pl.; a denial; as, ire 

inficias, t<> deny. 
Ingratiis, abl. pi. ; against one's 

will. 
Enjussu, nbl. ; without leave. 
Inquies, num. ; disquiet. 
lnst.ir. nam., ace ; a likeness. 
Interdiu, abl. ; in the day time 
Jnvitatu. aid.; an invitation. 
Jovis, nom., randy used ; — /;/. Joves. 
Jrrisui. dit. ; -um, ace; -u, abl. ; 

ih rision. 
Jugdris, gt n. ; -e. ah!. ; an acre ; — pi. 

jugera, -um, -ibus. 
JUSSU. abl.; command. 
Lakes, a SfOt. wants gen. pi. 
Lucu, abl.; light. 
Ludificatui, dat. ; a mockery. 



Lux, light, wants the gen. pi. 
Mand Ltu, abl. ; a command. 
Mane, num., ace ; mam-, or -i, abl 

morning. 
Mel, hum ij, not used in gen., dat. 

and abl. pi. 
Melos, ace; melody; — mele, nom. 

are ]>(. 
Metus, /ear, not used in gen., dat. 

and abl. pi. 
Missu, abl.; dispatch; — pi. missus 

-ibus. 
Monltu, abl. ; admonition ; — pi. mon 

ftus. 
Natu. abl. ; by birth. 
Nauci, gen. ; as, res nauci, a thing 

of no calve 
3, num., ace ; wickedness. 
Nemo, nobody, wants the voc. and 

the pi. 
Nepenthes, nom. ; an herb. 
Nex, death, wants the voc; — neces, 

nom., ace pi. 
Nihil, or nihilum, nom. and ace ; 

-i,gen.; -o,abl.; nothing. 
Noctu, abl. ; by night. 
Nuptui, dat. ; -um, ace; -u, abl. ; 

marriage. 
Obex, 7iom.; -Teem, ace; -Ice, or 

-jlce, abl. ; a bolt ;— pi. oblces, 

-jicibus. 
Objectum, ace ; -u, abl. ; an inter- 
position ; — pi. objectus. 
Obtentui, dat. ; -u, ubl. ; a pretext. 
Opis. gen.; opem, ace; ope, abl.; 

help ; — pi. entire. 
Oppositu, abl.; an opposing; — pi. 

opposltus. 
Opus, nam., ace ; need. 
Os. the mouth, wants the gcn.pl. 
Panacea, nom. ; an herb. 
Pax. peace wants gen. pi. 
Peccatu, abl.; sinning. 
Pecudis, gen. ; -i, dat.; -em, ace; 

~e, abl. ; — pi. entire. 
Pelage, nom., ace pi. of pelagus ; 

the sea. [promptu. 

Permissu, abl . ; permission. so 

Piscatus, nom. ; -i, gen. ; -um, ace. ) 

-u, abl. ; a fishing. 
Pix. pitch, wants gen.pl. 
Pondo, abl. ; in weight. 
Preci, dat. ; -em, ace ; -e, abl. ', 

prayer; — pi. entire. 
Procerem, ace ; a peer ; — pi. entire. 
Proles, offspring, wants gen. pi. 



S 95. 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



43 



Relatu, abl. ; a relation. 
Repetundarum, gen. pi.; -is, abl.; 
extortion. 

itu, itl/l. : a request. 
Itus, the country, wants gen., dat., 

and a&Z. /;/. 
Sfttias, nom. ; -atem, ace; -ate, all. ; 

satiety. 
Secus, nam., ace; sex. 
Situs, no in. ; -inn, ace. ; -u, aW. ; 

situation ; — situs, nom. and ace. 

pi. ; -ibus, aid. 
Situs, nom.; -as, gen.; -urn, ace; 

-u. obi. ; rust ; — situs, ace. pi. 
Soboles, offspring, wants gen. pi. 
Sol, the sun, wants gen. pi. 
Sordis, gen.; -em, ace; -e, abl. ; 

filth ; — pi. sordes, -ium, &c. 
Spontis, gen. ; -e, abl. ; of ones oion 

accord. 
Bappetisa, nom. pi. ; -as, ace. ; sup- 
plies. 
Tabum, nom. ; -i, gen. ; -o, abl. ; 

gore. 



Thus wants gen., dot., and abl. pi. 
Yenui and -o, dat. ; uin, ace.; -o, 

ah/., sale. 
Veprem, ace. ; -e f abl.; a brier; — pi. 

entire. 
Verlvris, gt n. ; -e, aW. ; a rfrtpfl ; — 

pi. verbgra, um, -Ibus. 
Vesper, nom.; -e or -i, abl. ; the 

evening. 
Vespera, nom. ; -am, ace ; -era, abl. ; 

the evening. 
Vesperus,7io?a. ; -o, dat. ; -um, ace. ; 

-o, abl. ; the evening. 
Vicis, gen. ; -i, dat. ; -em, ace. , -e, 

abl. ; change ; — pi. entire, except 

gen. 
Virus, nom. ; -i, gen. ; us, ace. ; -o, 

abl. ; poison. 
Vis, strength, wants the dat. sing.; — 

pi. vires, -ium, &c. See § 85. 
Viscus, nom. ; -eris, g'crc. ; -ere, abl. ; 

an internal organ, pi. viscera, &,c. 
Vocatu, abl.; a calling; — vocatus, 

ace. pi. 



Tempe, nom., ace, voc. pi. ; a vale Volupe, or volup', nom., ace. ; pleas- 
in Thessaly. ure. 

To these may be added nouns of the fifth declension, which either 
want the plural, as most of them are abstract nouns, or have in that num- 
ber only the nominative, accusative, and vocative. Res and dies, how- 
ever, have the plural entire. 

For the use of the vocative, also, of many words, no classical authority 
can be found. 

<§> 95. 2. Nouns defective in number, want either the plural 
'or the singular. 

(r/.) Many nouns want the plural from the nature of the things 
which they express. Such are names of persons, most names 
of places (except those which have only the plural), the names 
of virtues, vices, arts, herbs, metals, minerals, liquors, and corn, 
most abstract nouns, and many others. 

The following list contains most other nouns which want the 
plural, and also some, marked p, which are included in the 
above classes, but are sometimes used in the plural. 

Carduus, a thistle. 
Cz.ro, flesh, p. 
Cera, wax, p. 
Cestus, the girdle of 

Venus. 
Cicuta, hemlock, p. 
Ccenum, mud. 



Aconltum, icolfsbane, p. 
Adorea, corn. 
A or, the air, p. 
i*Es, brass, money, p. 
iEther, the sky. 
iEvum, an age, p. 
Album, an album. 
Allium, garlic, p. 



Argilla, white clay. 
Avena, oats, p. 
Balsamum, balsam, p. 
Balaustium, the flower 

of a pomegranate. 
Barathrum, a gulf. 
Galium, hardness of 



skin, p 



Amicitia, friendship, p. Calor, heat, p. 



Contagium, a 
gion, p. 



conta* 



44 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



§ 96. 



Crocum, saffron. 

( SrOOOB, saffron , p. 

( Sruor, blood, p. 
Cutis, the skin, p. 
1 liluculum, the dawn. 
Ebur, ivory, p. 
Electrum, umber, p. 
Faxj corn, p. 

ivi. ,,„//; 

1' ervor, heat, p. 
Fides, faith. 

Fimus, dang. 
Fuga., [flight, p. 
Pumas, smoke, p. 
Furor, madness, p. 
Galla, «?j oa/c apple. 
Ge 1 u, frost. 
Glarea, gravel. 
Gloria, glory, p. 
Glastum, tcoad. 
Gluten, or 
Glutinum, o-/2/c. 
Gypsum, white plaster. 
1 [epar, the liver. 
Hesperus, the evening 

star. 
Hilum, the black speck 

of a bean. 
Hordeum, barley, p. 
Humus, the ground. 
Indoles, the disposition. 
Ira, angir. p. 
Jubar, a sunbeam. 
Jus, justice, law, p. [tion. 
Justitium, a law vaca- 
Lac, milk. 
Lcetitia. joy, p. 
Languor, faintness, p. 
Lardum, bacon, p. 
Latex, liquor, p. 



Letum, death. 

Lignum, irood, p. 

Limus, //;«(/. 

Liquor, liquor, p. 

Lues, fl plague. 

Lutum, clay. 

Lux, /,V/<<, p. 

Macellum, theshambles. 

Mane, the morning. 

Marmor, marble, p. 

Mel, honey, p. 

Meridies, mid-day. 

Mors, death, p. 

Munditia, neatness, p. 

Mundus, female orna- 
ments. 

Muscus, moss. 

Nectar, nectar. 

Nemo, no man. 

Nequitia, xcickedncss, p. 

Nihil, nil, nihllum, no- 
thing. 

Nitrum, nitre. 

Ob\'ivio,f orgctfulncss, p. 

Omasum, fat tripe. 

Opium, opium. 

Palea, chaff, p. 

Pax, peace, p. 

Penum, and 

Penus, provisions. 

Piper, pepper. 

Pix, pitch, p. 

Pontus, the sea. 

Prolubium, desire. 

Pubes, the youth. 

Pulvis, dust, p. 

Purpura, purple, p. 

Quies, rest, p. 

Ros, dew, p. 

Rubor, redness, p. 



Sabulo, gravel. 
Sabulum, sand. 
Sal (neut.), salt ; — 

(masc.), p. 
Salum, the sea. 
Salus, safety. 
Sol, the sun, a day, p 
Sanguis, blood. 
Scrupulum, a scruple.p, 
Senium, old age. 
Siler, an osier. 
Sinapi, mustard. 
Siser, a carrot, p. 
Sitis, thirst. 
Sopor, sleep, p. 
Specimen, an example. 
Spuma,/w/?/i, p. 
Sulphur, sulphur, p. 
Supellex, furniture. 
Tabes, a consumption. 
Tabum, gore. 
Tellus,the earth. 
Terror, terror, p. 
Thymum, thyme, p. 
Tribulus, a thistle, p. 
Tristitia, sadness, p. 
Ver. spring. 
Verbena, vervain, p. 
Vespera, the evening. 
Veternum, and 
Veternus, lethargy. 
Vigor, strength, p. 
Vinum, wine, p. 
Virus, poison. 
Viscum. and 
Vise us, birdlime. 
Vitrum, tcoad. 
Vulgus, the common 

people. 
Zingiber, ginger. 



§ 98. (b.) The names of festivals and games, and several 
names of places and books, want the singular ; as, Baccha- 
nalia, a festival of Bacchus; Olympia, the Olympic games; 
Bucolica, a book of pastorals ; and the following names of 
places : — 



Acrocoraunia, Ecbatana, 

Amyclre, Esquilia^, 

Artaxata, Fundi, 

Athena?, Gabii, 

Baine, Gades, 
Ceraunia, 



Gemonice scalae, 

Locri, 

Parish, 

Philippi, 

Puteoli, 



Susa, 

Syracuse, 

Thermopyh 

Veii, 

Venetian 



Those in t more properly signify the people- 



^ 9C 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



45 



The following list contains most other nouns which want the 
singular, and also some, marked s, which are rarely used in 
that number : — 



Acta, acts. 

Adversaria, a memo- 
randum-hook. 

Estiva, sc. castra, sum- 
mer quarters. 

Alpes, the Alps, s. 

Annates, annuls, s. 

Aula-, doorposts, s. 

Antes, fore ranks. 

Ant'ue, a forelock. 

Apine, trifles. 

Argutiae, witticisms, s. 

Anna, arms. 

Artus, the joints, s. 

Bellaria, sweetmeats. 

Biga?, a two-horse char- 
iot, s. 

Braccce, breeches. 

Branchiae, the gills of a 
fish. 

Brevia, shallow places. 

Calendar, Calends. 

Cancelli, balustrades. 

Cani, gray hairs. 

Casses, a hunter's net, s. 

Caulae, sheep-folds. 

Celeres, light horse. 

Oddites, the gods, s. 

Cibaria, victuals. 

ClitellfB, panniers. 

Codicilli, writings. 

Crepundia, bawb.'es. 

Cunabula, and 

Cunae, a cradle. 

Cycladt's, the Cycladian 
islands, s. 

Decimal, tithes, s. 

Dime, the Furies, s. 

Divitiae, riches. 

Druides, the Druids. 

Dryades, the Dryads, s. 

Epulae, a banquet, s. 

Eumenldes, the Fu- 
ries, s. 

ExcubicB, watches. 

Exequiae, funeral rites. 

Exta, entrails. 

Exuviae, spoils. 

Facetiae, pleasant say- 
ings, s. 



FeritB, holidays. 

Fides, a stringed in- 
strument, s. 

Flabra, blasts. 

Fraga, strawberries, s. 

Fraces, the lees of oil. 

Gemini, twins, s. 

Genoe, cheeks, s. 

Gerra\ trifles. 

Grates, thanks. 

Habenae, reins, s. 

Hyades, the Hyades, s. 

Hyberna, sc. castra, 
winter quarters. 

Idus, the ides of a month. 

Ilia, the flunk. 

Incunabula, a cradle. 

Indutire, a truce. 

Induviffi, clothes. 

Ineptiae, silly wit, s. 

Inferi, the gods beletw. 

Inferiae, sacrifices to the 
dead. 

Insecta, insects. 

lnsidiae, snares. 

J usta, funeral rites. 

Lactes, small entrails. 

Lamenta, lamentations. 

Lapicidinue, a stone- 
quarry. 

Latebroe, lurking places, 
s. 

Laurices, young rabbits. 

Lautia, presents to for- 
eign ambassadors. 

Lemures, hobgoblins. 

Lendes, nits. 

Liberi, children, s. 

Luceres, a tribe of the 
Romans. 

Magalia, cottages. 

Majores, ancestors, s. 

Manes, the shades, s. 

Manubiae, spoils of war. 

Mapalia, huts, s. 

Minaciae, and 

Minae, threats. 

Minores, successors. 

Mcenia, the walls of a 
city. 



Multitia, garmentsfine- 

ly wrought. 
Mania, ojjiccs. 
Naiades, fountain 

nymphs, s. 
Nares, the nostrils, s. 
Natales, parentage. 
Nates, the haunches, s. 
Noma?, corroding sores, 

8. 

Nonae, the nones of a 

month. 
Nugae, trifles. 
Nundinae, a fair, a 

mart. 
Nuptiae, a marriage. 
Ob\ivia.,forgetfulness,s 
Offuciffi, cheats, s. 
Optimates, nobles, s. 
Pandects, pandects. 
Palearia, the dewlap, s. 
Parietlnae, old walls. 
Partes, a party. 
Pascua, pastures, s. 
Penates, household 

gods, 8. 
Phalera?, trappings, s. 
Philtra, love potions. 
Pleiades, the seven 

steirs, s. 
Posteri, posterity. 
Prsebia, an amulet. 
Praecordia, the parts 

about the heart. 
Primitiae, first fruits. 
Proceres, nobles, s. 
Pugillaria, or -ares, a 

note-book, s. 
Quadriga?, a four horse 

chariot, s. 
Quirltes, citizens of 

Rome, s. 
Quisquiliae, refuse. 
Reliquiae, a remuinder, 

s. 
Salebrae, ruggcdplaces, 

s. 
Salinae, a salt pit. 
Scalae, a ladder, s. 
Scatebrae, a spring, s. 



4G 



DKFF.CTIVE NOUNS. 



§> 97, ( .^. 



ScopSB, a broom. 

Scruta, old clothes. 
Sentes, thorns, s. 
Sponsalia, espousals 
Stativa, sc. castra, 

pitched camp. 
SupSri, the gods above. Tricuj, tr/Jlcs, toys 
Talaria, winged shoes. 

^ 07. The following differ in meaning in the different 
numbers : — 



Tenebroe, darkness. 
Tesqua, rough places. 
Thermae j hot baths. 
Tormina, colic pains. 
Transtra, seats for ruic- 
ers, s. 



Utcnsilia, utensils. 
Y;i'\ : i, folding do rs. 
Vepres, brambles, s. 
Vergilioe,<Aes< vt n stars. 
Vindicise, a claim of 

liberty. 
Virgulta, bushes. 



Ludus, pastime. 
Ludi, //i/lilic frames. 
Fastus, -us, pride. 
Fastus, -uum, and 
Fasti. -6rum, a calendar. 
Natalis, a birthday. 
Natales, birth, lineage. 
Fortuna, Fortune. 
Fortunae, wealth. 
Furfur, bran. 
Furfures, dandruff. 
Gratia, favor. 
Gratice, thanks. 
linpedimentum, a hin- 

derance. 
Impedimenta, baggage. 
Litera, a letter of the 

alphabet. 
Literte, an epistle. 
Lustrum, a space of five 

years. 
Lustra, dens of wild 

beasts. 



ACdes, -is, a temple. 

iEdes, -ium, a house. 

Auxilium, aid. 

Au.xilia, auxiliary 
troops. 

Bonum, a good thing. 

liona, property. 

Career, a prison. 

Carceres, a goal. 

Castrum, a castle. 

Castra, a camp. 

Comitium, a part of the 
Roman forum. 

Comitia, an assembly 
for election. 

Cupedia, -re, daintiness. 

Cupedire, -arum, and 

Cupedia, •drum, dain- 
ties. 

Copia, plenty. 

Copiae, forces. 

Facultas, ability. 

Facultates, wealth. 

§ 98. The following plurals are sometimes used in poe- 
try for the singular : — 



Mos, custom. 

Mores, manners. 

Opis, gen. help. 

Opes, -um, poicer, 
wealth. 

Opera, labor. 

Opera?, icor/rmen. 

Plnga, a climate. 

Plagre, nets, toils. 

Principium, a begin- 
ning. 

Principia, the general's 
quarters. 

Rostrum, a beak. 

Rostra, a pulpit or tri' 
banal. 

Rus, the country. 

R.ura, fields. 

Sal, salt. 

Sales, witticisms. 

Torus, a bed, a cord. 

Tori, brawny muscles. 



Alta, the sea. 
Anlmi, courage. 
Aurre, the air. 
Cannae, a keel. 
Cervices, the neck. 
Colla, the neck. 
Coma?, the hair. 
Connubia. marriage. 
Corda, the heart. 
Corpora, a body. 
Crepuscula, twilight. 
Currus, a chariot. 
Fxilia, banishment. 
Frigura, cold. 
G audi a, joy. 
Gramlna, grass. 



Guttura, the throat. 
Hymenaei, marriage. 
J ejunia. fasting. 
Ignes, lute. 
Ingulna, the groin. 
Jubre, a mane. 
Limlna, a threshold. 
Litora, a shore. 
Mensa?, a service 
course of dishes 



Ortus, a rising, the east. 

Otia, ease, leisure. 

Pectora, the breast. 

Rictus, the jaws. 

Robora, oak, strength. 

Silentia, silence. 

Sinus, the breast of a 
Roman garment. 
or Tredae, a torch. 

Tempora, time. 
Naeniae, a funeral dirge. Thalami, marriage, or 
Numlna, the divinity. marriage-bed. 

Odia, hatred . Thura, frankincense. 

Ora, the mouth, the Tori, a bed, a couch. 

countenance. Viae, a journey. 

Orae, confines. Vultus, the countenance. 



sS 99. 



REDUNDANT NOUNS. 



III. REDUNDANT NOUNS. 

«§> 99. Nouns are redundant either in termination, in 
declension, in gender, or in two or more of these respects. 

1. In termination: (a.) of the nominative; as, arbor, and 
arbos, a tree : (b.) of the oblique cases; as,tigris; gen. tigris, 
or -idis ; a tiger. 

2. In declension ; as, laurus; gen. -i, or -us ; a laurel. 

3. In gender ; as, vulgus, masc. or neut. ; the common 
people. 

4. In termination and declension ; as, senecta, -at, and senec- 
tus, -utis ; old age. 

5. In termination and gender; a.s,pilcus, masc, and pilcum, 
neut. ; a hat. 

G. In declension and gender ; as, penus, -i or -us, masc. or 
fern., and penus, -oris, neut. ; a store of provisions. Specus, 
-us or -?, masc, fern., or neut. 

7. In termination, declension, and gender ; as, mcnda, -<z, 
fern., and mendum, -i, neut. ; a fault. 

The following list contains most Redundant Nouns of the 
above classes : — 



Abusio, and -us. -us, an abuse. 

Acinus, and -urn, a grape- stone. 

Adagium, and -io, a proverb. 

Adinonitio, and -us, -us, an advising. 

yEthra, and ./Ether, the clear sky. 

Affectio, and -us, -us, affection. 
.Agamemno, and -on, Agamemnon. 

Alabaster, -tri, and -trum, an alabas- 
ter box. 

Alimonia, and -um, aliment. 

Alluvio, and -es, a flood. 

Alvearium, and -are, a bee-hive. 

Amaracus, and -um, sweet marjoram. 

Anfractum, and -us, -its, a winding. 

Angiportum, and -us, -us, a narrow 
way. 

Antidotus, and -um, an antidote. 

Aranea, arid -us, a spider. 

Arar, and -aris, the river Arar. 

Arbor, and -os, a tree. 

Architectus, and -on, an architect. 

Attagena, and -gen, a woodcock. 

Avaritia, and -ies, avarice. 

Augmentum, and -men, increase. 

Baccar, and -aris, a kind of herb. 

Baculus, and -uin, a staff. 

Balteus, and -um, a belt. 



Barbaria, and -ies, barbarism. 
BarbTtus, and -on, a harp. 
Batillus, and -um, afire shovel. 
Blanditia, and -ies, flattery. 
Buccina, and -um, a trumpet. 
Bura, and -is, a plough-tail. 
Buxus, and -um, the box-tree. 
Calamister, -tri, and -trum, a crisp- 

ing-pin. 
Callus, and -um, hardness of the skin. 
Cancer, -tri, or -eris, a crab. 
Canitia, and -ies, hoariness. 
Capus, and Capo, a capon. 
Casslda, and Cassis, a helmet. 
Catlnus, and -um, a platter. 
Cepa, and -e, an onion. 
Chirographus, and -um,a hand icrii- 

ing. 
Cingula, -us, and -um, a girdle. 
Clypeus, and -um, a shield. 
Cochlearium, -ar, and -are, a spoon. 
Colluvio, and -ies, filth. 
Commentarius, and -um, a journal. 
Compages, and -o, a joining. 
Conatum, and -us, -its, an attempt. 
Concinnltas, and -tudo, neatness. 
Consortium, and -io, partnership. 



43 



REDUNDANT NOUNS. 



$ 99. 



Contagium, -io, and -es, contact. 
Cornus, -i, or -us, a cornel-tree. 
Costus, and -um, a kind of shrub. 
Crocus, and -um, saffron. 
Crystallus, and -uin, crystal. 
Cubitus, and -um, a cubit. 
Cupid Has, and -pido, desire. 
Cupressus, -i, or -its, a cypress-tree 
Culeus, and -um, a leathern bag. 
Delicia, and -um, a delight. 
Delphinua, and Delphin, a dolphin. 
Desidia, and -es, sloth. 
Dictamnus, and -um, dittany. 
Diluvium, and -ies, a deluge. 
Domus, -i, or -us, a house. 
Dorsus, and -um, the back. 
Duritia, and -ies, hardness. 
Ebenus, and -um, ebony. 
ElRgia, and -ies, an image. 
Elegeia, and -us, an elegy. 
Elephantus, and -phas, an elephant. 
Esseda, and -um, a chariot. 
Evander, -dri, and -drus, Evaneler. 
Eventual, and -us, -us, an event. 
Exemplar, and -are, a copy. 
Ficus, -i, or -us, a Jig-tree. 
Fimus, and -um, dung. 
Fretum, and -us, -lis, a strait. 
Fulgetra, and -um, lightning. 
Galerus, and -um, a hat. 
Ganea, and -um, a subterraneous 

room. 
Gibba, -us, and -er, -cri, a bunch. 
Glomus, -i, or -eris, aball of thread. 
GlutTnum, and -ten, glue. 
Gobius, and -io, a gudgeon. 
Gruis, and Grus, a crane. 
Hebdomada, and -mas, a week. 
Helleborus, and -um, hellebore. 
Honor, and -os, honor. 
Hyssopus. and -um, hyssop. 
Jlios. and -on, Troy. 
Incestum, and -us, -us, incest. 
Intubus, and -um, endive. 
Jugulus, and -um, the throat. 
Juventa, -us, and -as, youth. 
Labor, and -os, labor. 
Lacerta, and -us, a lizard. 
Laurus, -/, or -us, a laurel. 
Lepor, and -os, wit. 
Libraria, and -um, a book-case. 
Ligur, and -us, -uris, a Ligurian. 
Lupinus, and -um, a lupine. 
Luxuria, and -ies, luxury. 
Meander, -dri, and -drus, Maander. 



Materia, and -ies, materials. 
Medimnus, and -um, a measure. 
Menda, and -um, a fault. 
Milliarium, and -arc, a mile. 
Modius, and -um, a measure. 
Mollitia, and -ies, softness. 
Momentum, and -men, motion. 
Mugil, and -His, a mullet. 
Mulciber, -eri, or -eris, Vulcan. 
Mulctra, and -um, a milk-pail. 
Munditia, and -ies, neatness. 
Muria, and -ies, brine or pickle. 
Myrtus, -i, or -us, a myrtle. 
Nardus, and -um, spikenard. 
Nasus, and -um, the nose. 
Necessltas, and -udo, necessity. 
Nequitia, and -ies, wickedness. 
Notitia, and -ies, knowledge. 
Oblivium, and -io, forgetfulness. 
Obsidium, and -io, a siege. 
GCdlpus, -i, or -odis, (Edipus. 
Orpheus, -ei, or -cos, Orpheus. 
Falatus, and -um, the palate. 
Palumba, -es, and -us, -us, a pigeon. 
Papyrus, and -um, papyrus. 
Paupertas, and -ies, poverty. 
Pavus, and -o, a peacock. 
Penus, -6ris,-i, or -us, and Penum, 

provisions. 
Peplus, and -um, a veil. 
Perseus, -ei, or -cos, Perseus. 
Pileiis, and -um, a hat. 
Pinus, -i, or -us, a pine-tree. 
Pistrlna, and -um, a bake-house. 
Planitia, and -ies, a plain. 
Plato, and -on, Plato. 
Plebs, and Plebes, -ei, the common 

people. 
Postulatum, and -io, a request. 
Prresepes, -is, and -e, a stable. 
Proetextum, and -us, -us, a pretext. 
Prosapia. and -ies, Uncage. 
Pvapa, and -um, a turnip. 
Requies, -etis, or -e)', rest. 
Rete, mid -is, a net. 
Reticulus, and -um, a small net. 
Rictum, and -us, -us, the mouth. 
Ruscus, and -um, butcher's broom. 
Saovitia, and -ies, cruelty. 
Sagus, and -um, a soldier's cloak. 
Sanguis, and -guen, blood. 
Satrapes, and Satraps, a satrap. 
Scabritia, and -ies, roughness. 
Scobis, eind Scobs, saicdust. 
Scorpius, and -io, a scorpion 



<§> 100. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 49 

Scrobis, and Scrobs, a ditch. Tabus, and -urn, gore. 

Segmentum, and -men, apiece. Tapetum, -etc, and -cs, tapestry 

Segnitia, and -ics, sloth. Tenerltas, and -todo, softness. 

Senecta, and -us, old age. Tiara, and -as, a turban. 

Benwim, and -us, -us, sense. Tignus, and -um, a plank. 

Sequester, -tri, or -tris, an umpire. Tigris, -is, or -\dis, a tiger. 

Besama, and -um, sesame. Titanus, and Titan, Titan. 

Sibllus, and -urn, a kissing. Tonitruuin, and -trus, tkunder. 

Binapi, and -is, mustard. Torale, and -a], a bed covering. 

Sinus, and -uin, a milk-pail. Trabes, and Trabs, a beam. 

Spams, and -um, a spear. Tribula, and -um, a threshing ma- 
Spureitia, mid -ics, jiltkiness. chine. 

Squalitudo, and Squalor , filtkincss . Vespera, -perus, and -per, tke even' 
Btramentum, and -men, straw. iug. 

Buffimentum, and -men, a perfume. Yinaceus, and -um, a grape-stone. 

Suggestus, and -um, a pulpit. Viscus, and -um, birdlime. 

Bupparus, and -um, a veil. Vulgus, masc.andneut.,£/*e common 
Bupplicium, and -icatio, a suppli- people, 

cation. 

To these may be added some other verbals in us and io, and Greek 
nouns in o and on; as, Dio and Dion; also some Greek nouns in es and 
e, which have Latin forms in a ; as, Strides and Atrida. See § 45. 

Some proper names of places also are redundant in number; as, Argos 
and.lrgi; Cuma and C untie ; F'uUna and Fide me ; Tkcbe and Tltebcc. 

The different forms of most words in the above list are not equally 
common, and some are rarely used, or only in particular cases. 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

$ 100. Nouns are derived from other nouns, from adjec- 
tives, and from verbs. 

I. From nouns are derived the following classes : — 

1. A patronymic is the name of a person, derived from that 

of his father or other ancestor, or of the founder of his nation. 
Patronymics are properly Greek nouns, and have been borrowed from 

that language by the Latin poets. 

Most masculine patronymics end in ides ; as, Priamides, a 
son of Priam ; Romulidcv, the Romans, from their first king, 
Romulus. Those from nouns in cits usually contract tides into 
ides ; as, Atridcs, from Atreus. Those from nouns in as and 
es, of the first declension, end in ades ; as, JEncades, from 
JEneas ; but some, from nouns of this and of other declensions, 
end in iades ; as, Anckisiades, from Anchiscs , Abantiddcs, from 
A has. 

To masculine patronymics in ides, eides, ades, and iades, 

correspond feminines in is, cis, as, and ias ; as, Tyndaris, the 

daughter of Tyndani.s ; Nereis, the daughter of Ncreus ; Thcs* 

Has, the daughter of Thestius ; AZctias, the daughter of Metes. 

5 



50 DERIVATION OF NOUNS. <§> 100. 

A feminine in ine is also found ; as, Ncrlne, from Nereus. 
Patronymics in des and we are of the first declension; those in is and as, 
of the third. 

2. A patriot or gentile noun is derived from the name of a 
country, and denotes an inhabitant of that country; as, Tros, a 
Trojan man; Troas, a Trojan woman; Macedo, a Macedo- 
nian; Samnis, a Samnite; from Troja, Macedonia, and Sam- 
ninm. 

Most patrials are properly adjectives, relating to a noun understood ; 
as, homo, civis, &c. 

3. A diminutive signifies a small thing of the kind denoted 
by the primitive. 

Diminutives generally end in lus, la, or Iwn, according as the 
primitive is masculine, feminine, or neuter. These terminations 
are usually added either to the nominative or to the root of the 
primitive : commonly u or cu is inserted before them ; as, ado- 
Icscentulus, a very young man, from adolescens, a youth; arula, 
a little altar, from ara; scutulum, a little shield, from scutum; 
f rater cuius, muliercula, opusculum, from j rater, mulier, and opus. 

In some, 6 is inserted instead of u; a.s,Jilidlus, from Jilius. 

A few diminutives end in leus ; as, equideus, from equus, a 
horse. 

Sometimes the root of the primitive is variously modified ; 
as, homunculus, asellus, UbcUus, from homo, asinus, and liber. 

Some diminutives differ in gender from their primitives; as, 
ranunculus, scamillus, from rana and scamnum. 

4. Amplijicativcs are personal appellations, denoting an ex- 
cess of what is expressed by their primitives ; as, capito, one 
who has a large head, from caput, the head; naso, one who has 
a large nose, from nasus, the nose. 

5. The termination iwn or itium, added to the root of a noun, 
indicates an assemblage of the individuals denoted by the prim- 
itive, or their office or employment; as, collegium, an assembly 
of colleagues ; scrvitium, a collection of servants ; saccrdotium, 
the priesthood ; ministerium, a ministry ; from collega, scrims, 
saccrdos, and minister. 

6. The termination imonium is added to the root of a few 
nouns, denoting that which gives to the primitives their char- 
acter ; as, testimonium, testimony ; vadimonium, obligation ; 
from testis and wis (cadis). 

7. The termination etum, added to the root of names of 
plants, denotes a place where they grow in abundance ; as, 
uucrcetum, lauretum, from qucrcus, an oak, and laurtis, a laurel. 



$ 101, 102. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 51 

But some are irregular ; as, arbustum, salictum ; from arbos, a 
tree, and salix, a willow. 

8. The termination arium, added to the root of a noun, de- 
notes the place where the things signified by the primitive are 
kept ; as, aciarium, plantarium ; from avis, a bird, and planla, 
a plant. 

9. The termination lie, also, added to the root of words de- 
noting animals, marks the place where they are kept ; as, bo- 
vile, caprile, ovile ; from bos, an ox, caper, a goat, and ovis, a 
sheep. 

This and the preceding class are properly neuter adjectives. 

<§> 101. II. From adjectives are derived the following forms 
of abstract nouns. See § 26. 

1. The terminations itas, ia, itudo, and edo, are added to 
the root of the primitive ; as, cupiditas, desire ; audacia, bold- 
ness ; magnitudo, greatness ; albedo, whiteness ; from cupidus, 
audax, magnus, and albus. 

So atrocltas, crud clltas, from atrox and crudtlis ; concordia,perfidia, from 
concors and prrfldus ; similitudo, longitudo, from simllis and longus ; dul- 
cedo, pin true do, from dulcis undpiriguis. 

When the root ends in i, the abstract is formed in etas ; as, 
pietas, piety ; anxietas, anxiety; from^ws and anxius. 

Libert as, liberty, is contracted from liberitas. So juventas, 
paupcrtas ; and difficultas, difficulty, from difficiUtas. 

A few abstracts are formed in itus or tus, instead of itas ; 
as, servitus, slavery; juventus, youth ; from servus and juvenis. 

Instead of ia, some adjectives in us and is add itia, or ides, 
.to the root ; as, avaritia, avarice ; justitia, justice ; from avd- 
rus and Justus ; — durities, hardness; scevities, cruelty; from 
durus and scevus ; segnitia and segnities, from segnis. 

Consuctudo, desuetudo, mansuetudo, and sollicitudo, omit it 
in the termination, as their root ends in t. 

2. A few adjectives form abstracts in imonia ; as, acrimonia, 
tartness ; sanctimonia, sanctity ; from accr and sanctus. 

Abstracts are sometimes formed from the same adjective with 
different terminations ; as, claritas and claritudo, from clarus. 

Adjectives, as distinguished from the abstracts which are 
formed from them, are called concretes. 

<§> 102. III. Nouns derived from verbs are called verbal 
nouns. 

The following are the principal classes : — 

1. The termination or, added to the first root of a verb, espe- 



5fl DERIVATION OF NOUNS. »§> 102. 

cially of .1 neuter verb, denotes the action or state of the verb 
abstractly; as, amor, love; favor, favor; mcrror, grief; splen- 
dor, brightness; from amo, J'un 0, ma r< <>, and splendeo. 

k 2. From many verbs abstracts are formed by adding ium to 
thf first rout ; as, colloquium, a conference; gaudium, joy; ex- 
ordium, a beginning; from colloquor, gaudeo, and exordior. 

Some words of this class are formed by changing final u, in 
the third root of the verb, into ium ; as, cxitium, destruction; 
solatium, consolation; from exco (exitu) and solur (sulatu). 

3. Some verbal nouns are formed by adding eta, imonia, or 
imonium, to the first root of the verb; as loquela, speech; 
querela, a complaint; suadela, persuasion ; from loquor, qucror, 
and suadeo; — alimonia and alimanium, nutriment, from alo ; — 
querimonia, a complaint, from qucror. 

4. The termination mentum, added to the first root of the 
verb, generally with a connecting vowel, denotes a means for 
the performance of the action of the verb ; as, documentum, a 
means of teaching ; from doceo. So blandimcntum, experimen- 
tum, etc. ; and so /omentum, momentum, for fovimentum, etc., 
from fovco, etc. 

The termination men has sometimes a similar signification ; 
as, tegmen, a covering; from tego. 

Some words of this class have no primitive verb in use; as, 
atranuntum, capillamcntum, &c. 

5. The terminations itli/m, bulmn, and culiim, added to the 
first root of a verb, the two last with a connecting vowel, denote 
a means or instrument ; as, cingulum, a girdle ; jaculum, a jave- 
lin ; vehiculum, a vehicle; vcnabidum, a hunting-spear; from 
cin^o, jacio, veko, and venor. 

Some words of this kind are formed from nouns ; as, acetab- 
ulum, a vinegar cruet ; thuribulum, a censer; from acetum and 
thus. 

6. Nouns formed by changing final u, in the third root of the 
verb, into or and riz, denote respectively the male and female 
agent of the action expressed by the verb; as, aqjutor, adjutrix, 
an assistant; f (tutor, fautrix, a favorer ; victor, uictrix, a con- 
queror ; from adjuvo (adjutu),f(ii'(o (fautu), vinco (victu). 

The feminine form is less common than the masculine. 

Some nouns in tor are formed immediately from other nouns ; 
a<, viator, a traveller ; janitor, a door-keeper; from via and 
janua. In meretrix from mereo, i of the third root becomes e. 

7. Many abstract nouns are formed by changing final u, in 
the third root of a verb, into 10 and us ; as, actio, an action ; 



^, 103. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS. 53 

cautio, caution ; lectio, reading; from ago (acta), cavco (cau- 
tu), lego (lectu) ; — cantus, singing; visus, sight; usus, use; 
prom cano (re//////), video (visu), utor [usu). 

Nouns of both forms, and of the same signification, are fre- 
quently derived from the same verb; as, concursio and concur' 
fits, a running together; motio and motus, <Slc. 

The termination ra, added to the third root of a verb, some- 
times has the same signification as io and us, and sometimes 
denotes the result of an action; as, posit Fa-a, position; vinrtFi- 
ra, a binding together; from pono (posttu), and vincio (vinciu); 
— conjectFira, a conjecture ; pictura, a picture ; from conjicio 
\conjectu) and pingo (pictu). 

One of the forms in io, us, and iira, is generally used to the exclusion 
of the others, and when two or more are found, they are usually employ- 
ed in somewhat different senses. 

8. The termination or htm, added to the third root of a verb, 
after u is removed, denotes the place where the action of the 
verb is performed ; as, auditorium, a lecture-room ; conditorium, 
a repository ; from audio and condo. 

COMPOSITION OF NOUNS. 

$ 103. Compound nouns are formed variously : — 

1. Of two nouns; as, rupicapra, a wild goat, of rupes and 
capra. In some words, compounded of two nouns, the former 
is a genitive ; as, senatusconsultum, a decree of the senate ; ju- 
risconsultus, a lawyer. In others, both parts are declined ; as, 
irespubUca, jusjurahdum. See § 91. 

2. Of a noun and a verb ; as, arttfex, an artist, of ars and 
far io ; Jidicen, a harper, of Jidis and cano; agricola, a hus- 
bandman, of agcr and colo ; patricida, a patricide, of pater and 
ca. do. 

3. Of an adjective and a noun; as, cequinoctium, the equinox, 
of cr.quus and nox ; millepeda, a millepede, of mi lie and pes. 

In dinnnvir, triumvir, decemvir, ccntumvir, the numeral adjec- 
tive is in the genitive plural. 

Remark. When the former part of the compound is a noun 
or an adjective, it usually ends in i. If the second word begins 
with a vowel, an elision takes place; as, quinquennium, of qui n- 
que and annus. 

4. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, ncfas, wickedness ; nemo, 
nobody ; of ne,fas } and homo. So biduum, of bis and dies. 

5. Of a preposition and a noun ; as,i?icuria, wan* of care, of 

5* 



54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. $ 104, 105. 

in and cura. So intervallum, the space between the ramparts ; 
j>r<n ordia, the vitals ; proverbiwn, a proverb ; subscllium, a seat ; 
superficies, a surface. 

When the former part is a preposition, its final consonant is 
sometimes changed, to adapt it to that which follows it: as, 
immortaRtas, imprudentia. See § 19G. 



ADJECTIVES. 

§ 104. An adjective is a word which qualifies or limits 
the meaning of a substantive. 

Adjectives may be divided, according to their signification, 
into various classes ; as denoting, 

1. Quality; as, bonus, good ; albus, white. 

2. Quantity ; as, magnus, great ; totus, the whole. 

3. Matter ; as, abiegnus, made of fir ; aureus, golden. 

4. Time ; as, annuus, yearly ; hesternus, of yesterday. 

5. Place ; as, alius, high ; vicinus, near. 

6. Relation ; as, amicus, friendly ; aptus, fit. 

7. Number ; as, unus, one ; secundus, second. These are 
called numerals. 

8. Possession ; as, herilis, a master's ; pat emits, of a father. 
These are called possessives. 

9. Country ; as, Romdnus, Roman ; Arpinas, of Arplnum. 
These are called patriots. 

10. Part ; as, ullus, any one ; alter, another. These are call- 
ed partitives. 

11. Interrogation; as, quantus, how great? qualis, of what 
kind ? These are called interrogatives ; when not used inter- 
rogatively, they are called indefinites. 

12. Diminution ; as, parvulus, from parvus, small ; misellus, 
from miser, miserable. These are called diminutives. 

13. Amplification; as, vinosus and vinolentus, much given 
to wine ; auritus, having long ears These are called amplifi- 
catives. 

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

*§> 105. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and are 
either of the first and second declension, or of the third only. 



§105. ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 55 



ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND 
DECLENSION. 

The masculine of adjectives that belong to the first and second 
declension, ends either in us or er. Those in us change us into 
a for the feminine, and into um for the neuter. Those in er 
add a for the feminine, and um for the neuter. The masculine 
in us is declined like dominus ; that in er like gcner, or agcr ; 
the feminine always like musa ; and the neuter like regnum. 

Remark. One adjective, satur, -iira, -urum, full, ends in ur, and the 
masculine is declined like gener. 



1. Bonus, good. 









Singular. 






Masc. 




Fern. 


JYeut. 


N. 


bo'-nus, 




bo'-na, 


bo'-num, 


G. 


bo'-ni, 




bo'-nae, 


bo'-ni, 


D. 


bo'-no, 




bo'-nce, 


bo'-no, 


Ac 


. bo'-num 




bo'-nam, 


bo'-num, 


V. 


bo'-ne, 




bo'-na, 


bo'-num, 


Ab 


. bo'-no. 




bo'-na. 
Plural. 


bo'-no. 


N. 


bo'-ni, 




bo'-nae, 


bo'-na, 


G. 


bo-no'-rum, 


bo-na'-rum, 


bo-no'-rum, 


D. 


bo'-nis, 




bo'-nis, 


bo'-nis, 


Ac. 


bo'-nos, 




bo'-nas, 


bo'-na, 


V. 


bo'-ni, 




bo'-nse, 


bo'-na, 


Ab 


bo'-nis. 




bo'-nis. 


bo'-nis. 




In 


like manner decline 


Al'-tus, hi c 


rh. 


Fi'- 


dus, faithful. 


Lon'-gus, Ion 


A-va'-rus, 


covetous. 


Im' 


-pro-bus, wicked. 


Tie' -nus, full. 


Be-nig'-nus, kind. 


ln- 


I'-quus, unjust. 


Tac'-I-tus, sil 


Like bonus are 


also 


declined all participles in us. 




2. 


Tener, tender. 










Singular. 






Masc. 




Fern. 


JVeut. 


N. 


te'-ner, 




ten'-e-ra, 


ten'-e-rum, 


G. 


ten'-e-ri, 




ten'-e-rse, 


ten'-e-ri, 


D. 


ten'-e-ro, 




ten'-e-rae, 


ten'-e-ro, 


Ac. 


ten'-e-rum 


i 


ten'-e-ram, 


ten'-e-rum, 


V. 


te'-ner, 




ten'-e-ra, 


ten'-e-rum, 


Ab. 


ten'-e-ro. 




ten'-e-ra. 


ten'-e-ro. 



5G ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. §106. 

Plural 



N. 


ten'-e-ri, 


ten'-e-ra?, 


ten'-e-ra, 


G. 


tLMi-e-ro'-rum, 


ten-e-ra'-rum, 


ten-e-ro'-rum, 


D. 


ten'-e-ris, 


ten'-e-ris, 


ten'-e-ris, 


Ac. 


ten'-e-ros, 


ten'-e-ras, 


ten'-e-ra, 


V. 


ten'-e-ri, 


ten'-e-rae, 


ten'-e-ra, 


Ab. 


ten'-e-ris. 


ten'-e-ris. 


ten'-e-ris. 



In like manner are declined 

As'-per, rovgh. Gib'-ber, crook-backed. Mi'-ser, wretched. 

Ex'-ter, foreign. La'-cer, torn. Pros' -per, prosperous, 

hi' -her, free. Sa'-tur, full. 

So also scnilfcr, and the compounds of gero and fero; as, laniger, 
bearing wool ; oplfcr, bringing help. 

Note. Exter is scarcely used in the nominative singular mascu- 
line. 

^ 106. The other adjectives in er (except alter) drop the 
e in declension. 



N. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 
V. 

Ab. 



N. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 



Masc. 
pi'-ger, 
pi'-gri, 
pi'-gro, 
pi'-grum 
pi'-ger, 
pi'-gro. 



Piger, slothful. 

Singular. 
Fern. 
pi'-gra, 
pi'-grae, 
pi'-grae, 
pi'-gram, 
pi'-gra, 
pi'-gra. 

Plural. 



pi'-gri, 

pi-gro'-rum, 

pi'-gris, 

pi'-gros. 

Pi'-gn, ' 
pi'-gris. 



pi'-grae, 

pi-gra'-rum, 

pi'-gris, 

pi'-gras, 

pi'-gra3, 

pi'-gris. 



JVeut. 
pi'-grum, 

Pi'-g", 

pi'-gro, 

pi'-grum, 

pi'-grum, 

pi'-gro. 



pi'-gra, 

pi-gro'-rum, 

pi'-gris, 

pi'-gra, 

pi'-gra, 

pi'-gris. 



In like manner decline 
jE'-ger, sick. Ma'-cer, lean. 

A'-ter, black. Ni'-ger, black. 

Cre' -her, frcqitcjit. VuV-cher,fuir. 

Gla -ber, smooth. Ru'-ber, red. 

In'-t6-ger, entire. Sa'-cer, sacred. 

Dexter, right, has -tra, -trum, or -tSra, -tlrum. 



Sca'-ber, rough. 
Si-nis'-ter, left. 
Te'-ter, foul. 
Va'-fer, crafty. 



§> 107, 108. ADJECTIVES THIRD DECLENSION. 57 

§ 107. Six adjectives in us, and three in er, have their 
genitive singular m ius, and the dative in », in all the genders : — 
Alius, another. Totus, whole. Alter, -te"ra, -terum, the other. 

Nullus, no one. Ullus, any. Uter, -tra, -trum, which of the two. 

Solus, alone. Unus, one. Neuter, -tra, -trum, neither. 

To these may be added the other compounds of uter, — namely, uterque, 
each ; utcrcumque, utcrllbet, and utcrvis, which of the two you please ; gen. 
utriusque, &c *, — also, alterutcr, one of two ; gen. alterutrius, and sometimes 
alterius utrius ; dat. alterutri. So alterutcr que. 







Example. 








Singular. 






Masc. 


Fern. 


JYeut. 


N. 


u'-nus, 


u'-na, 


u'-num, 


G. 


u-ni'-us,* 


u-ni'-us, 


u-ni'-us, 


D. 


u'-ni, 


u'-ni, 


u'-ni, 


Ac. 


u'-num, 


u'-nara, 


u'-num, 


V. 


u'-ne, 


u'-na, 


u'-num, 


Ah. 


u'-no. 


u'-na. 


u'-no. 



The plural is regular, like that of bonus. 

Remark 1. Alius has aliud in the nom. and ace. sing, neuter, and 
in the genitive alius, contracted for aliius. 

2. Some of these adjectives, in ancient authors, form their genitive and 
dative regularly, like bonus, tener, or piger. 



ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

*5> 108. Some adjectives of the third declension have three 
terminations in the nominative singular ; some two ; and others 
onjy one. 

I. Those of three terminations end in er, masc. ; is, fern. ; 
and e, neut. : and are thus declined : — 





Acer, sharp. 
Singular. 
Masc. Fern. 


JYeut. 


N. 


a'-cer, 




a'-cris, 


a'-cre, 


G. 


a'-cris, 




a'-cris, 


a'-cris, 


D. 


a'-cri, 




a'-cri, 


a'-cri, 


Ac. 


a'-crem 




a'-crem, 


a'-cre, 


V. 


a'-cer, 




a'-cris, 


a'-cre, 


Ah. 


a'-cri. 




a'-cri. 


a'-cri. 



See $ 15. 



*>3 ADJECTIVES TIIIHD DECLENsION. § 109, 1 10) 

Plural. 

N. a'-cres, a'-cres, a'-cri-a, 

G. a-ori-um, a'-cri-um, a'-cri-um, 

I). ac-rl-bus, ac-rl-bus, ac'-rT-bus, 

Ac. a'-cres, a'-cres, a'-cri-a, 

V. a'-cres, a'-cres, a'-cri-a, 

Ab. ac'-ri-bus. ac'-rl-bus. ac'-rl-bus. 

In like manner are declined the following only : — 
Al'-a-cer, cheerful. Pa-lus'-ter, marshy. Sil-ves'-ter, woody. 

Cam-pes'-ter, of a plain. Pe-des'-ter, on foot. Ter-res'-ter, terrestrial. 
Cel -6-bet, famous. Puter, rotten. Vol'-u-cer, winged. 

L-ques'-ter, cf/ucstrian. Sa-lu'-ber, xcholesomc. 

Celer, swift, has ceteris, celere ; gen. ceteris, &c. 
Remark 1. The nominative singular masculine sometimes ends in 
is,^ like the feminine; as, saluber, or salubris. 

2. Voltocer has urn in the genitive plural. See § 114. 
$ 109. II. Adjectives of two terminations end in is for the 
masculine and feminine, and e for the neuter, except compar- 
atives, which end in or and us. 

Those in is, e, are thus declined : — 

Mitis, mild. 
Singular. Plural. 

M.&,-F. JY. M.fyF. X. 

N. mi'-tis, mi'-te, N. mi'-tes, mit'-i-a,* 

G. mi'-tis, mi'-tis, G. mit'-i-um,* mit'-i-um, 

D. mi'-ti, mi'-ti, D. mit'-i-bus, mit'-i-bus, 

Ac. mi'-tem, mi'-te, Ac. mi'-tes, mit'-i-a, 

V. mi'-tis, mi'-te, V. mi'-tes, mit'-i-a, 

Ab. mi'-ti. mi'-ti. Ab. mit'-i-bus. mit'-i-bus. 

In like manner decline 
Ag'-i-lis, active. Dul'-cis, sweet. In-col'-u-mis, safe. 

Pre -vis short. For'-tis, brave. Mi-rab'-i-lis, wonderful. 

Cru-de'-hs, cruel. Gra'-vis, heavy. Om'-ms all. 

Trcs, three, is declined like the plural of mitis. 

§ 110. All comparatives except plus, more, are thus de- 
clined : — 

Mitior,* milder. 

Singular. 
M. 4- F. jy. 
N. mit'-i-or, mit'-i-us, 
G. mit-i-6'-ris, mit-i-6'-ris, 
D. mit-i-6'-ri, mit-i-6'-ri, 
Ac. mit-i-6'-rcm, mit'-i-us, 
V. mit'-i-or, mit'-i-us, 
Ab. mit-i-6'-re, or ri. mit-i-6'-re, or ri. 



* Pronounced mish'-e-um, &,c. See $ 12. 



& 111. ADJECTIVES THIRD DECLENSION. 



59 



Plural. 
M. fy F. JV. 

N. mit-i-o'-res, mit-i-o'-ra, 

G. mit-i-o'-rum, mit-i-o'-rum, 

D. mit-i-or'-I-bus, mit-i-or'-I-bus, 

Ac. mit-i-6'-res, mit-i-o'-ra, 

V. mit-i-o'-res, mit-i-o'-ra, 

Ab. mit-i-or'-I-bus. mit-i-or'-I-bus. 

In like manner decline 
\l'-ti-or, higher. Fe-lic'-i-or, happier. Pru-den'-ti-or, more pru- 

[ire' -vi-or, shorter. For'-ti-or, braver. dent. 

Cru-de'-li-or, more cruel. Gra'- vi-or, heavier. U-be'-n-or, more fertile. 
Dul'-ci-or, sweeter. 

Plus, more, is thus declined : — 
Singular. Plural. 

JV. M.^F. jv. 

JV. plus, JV. plu'-res, plu'-ra, rarefy pluna, 

G. plu'-ris, O. plu'-ri-um, plu'-ri-um, 

/). ( D. plu'-ri-bus, plu'-ri-bus. 

Ac. plus, Ac. plu'-res, plu'-ra, 

V. -, V. , , 

Sib. t M. plu'-ri-bus. plu'-ri-bus. 

the plural number only, complurcs, a great many. 
<§> 11 1. III. Other adjectives of the third declension have 
but one termination in the nominative singular for all genders, 
and they all increase in the genitive.* 
They are thus declined : — 

Felix, happy. 
Singular. 



So. 





M. b F. 


jsr. 


N. 


fe'-lix, 


fe'-lix, 


G. 


fe-H'-cis, 


fe-li'-cis, 


D. 


fe-H'-ci, 


fe-li'-ci, 


Ac. 


fe-lF-cem, 


fe'-lix, 


V. 


fe'-lix, 


fe'-lix, 


Ab. 


fe-H'-ce, or ci. 

Plural. 


fe-ll'-ce, or ci. 


N. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a,t 


G. 


fe-lic'-i-um,t 


fe-lic'-i-um, 


J). 


fe-lic'-I-bus, 


fe-lic'-T-bus, 


Ac. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a, 


V. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a, 


Ab. 


fe-lic'-i-bus. 


fe-lic'-I-bus. 



* Senex, senis, old, had anciently senicis or senfeis. 

f Pronounced fe-lish'-e-um, &.c. See §$ 10, E\c, and 7. 

I The ablative plure is obsolete. 



60 ADJECTIVES OBLIQUE CASES. <§> 112. 

Pracsens, present. 

Singular. 
M. fy F. JV. 

N. prae'-sens, prae'-sens, 

G. prae-sen'-tis, prae-sen'-tis, 

J), prae-sen'-ti, prce-sen'-ti, 

Ac. prae-sen'-tem, prae'-sens, 

V. prae'-sens, pras'-sens, 

Ab. prae-sen'-te, or ti. prae-sen'-te, or ti. 

Plural. 

N. prae-sen'-tes, prae-sen'-ti-a,* 

G. prcE-sen'-ti-um, prae-sen'-ti-um, 

D. prae-sen'-tl-bus, prae-sen'-ti-bus, 

Ac. prae-sen'-tes, prae-sen'-ti-a, 

V. prae-sen'-tes, prce-sen'-ti-a, 

Ab. prae-sen'-ti-bus. prae-sen'-tT-bus. 

In like manner decline 

Au'-dax, -acis, bold. Par'-tl-ceps, -Tpis, par- Sos'-pes, -itis, safe. 

Com' -pos,-6tis. master of . tic/pant. Sup'-plex, -icis, swp- 

Fe'-rox, -ocis, fierce. Prae'-pes, -etis, swift. pliant. 

In'-gens, -tis, huge. So'-lers, -tis, shrewd. 

All present participles are declined like prccsens. 



Rules for the Oblique Cases of Adjectives of the 
Third Declension. 

GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

$ 1 12. Most adjectives of the third declension form their 
genitive singular like nouns of the same termination. 

The following may here be specified : — 
Of those in es, (compare § 73) 

Some have etis ; as, hebes, dull ; pcrpes, perpetual ; pra'pes, swift ; and 
teres, slender ; — (Lojcuples, rich, has etis ;) — 

Some Uis ; as, dives, rich ; sospes, safe ; and superstcs, surviving ; — 

Some idis ; as, discs, slothful ; and rcses, sluggish. \beris. 

Bipcs, two-footed, and tripes, three-footed, have pedis. Pubes, hzsvu- 
Compos, master of, and impos, unable, have otis. (§ 75) 
Pernor, lasting all night, has noctis. (§ 73, Exc. 2) [§ 76, Exc. 2) 

CteLebs, unmarried, has ibis ; inter cus, intercutaneous, utis. (§ 77 and 
Those in ceps, compounds of caput, have cipltis ; as, a?iceps, doubtful J 
preeceps, headlong. (§ 78) [(§ 71, Exc. 2) 

Those in cors, compounds of cor, have cordis; as, concors, agreeing. 

* Pronounced prc-sen'-she-a, &.C. 



*§> 113-115. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 61 

ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

§113, 1. Adjectives of the third declension, of two or 
three terminations, except comparatives in or, have always * in 
the ablative. 

2. Comparatives, and participles in ns used as participles, 
have rather e than * ; and such participles in the ablative abso- 
lute have always e. 

3. Adjectives of one termination have e or * in the ablative. 

NOMINATIVE AND GENITIVE PLURAL. 

The neuter of the nominative plural ends in ia, and the gen- 
itive plural of all genders in ium; but comparatives in or, with 
vetus, old, and uber, fertile, have a, and um. 

Exceptions in the Ablative Singular and Genitive Plural. 

<§> 114. 1. The following adjectives have e in the ablative 
singular, and um in the genitive plural : — 

Bicorpor, two-bodied. Impubes, beardless. Sospes, safe. 

Bipes, two-footed. JuvSnis, young. Superstes, surviving. 

Cadebs, unmarried. Pauper, poor. Tricorpor, three-bodied. 

Compos, master of. Princeps, chief. Tricuspis, three-forked. 

Discolor, particolored. Puber, or -es,full-groicn. Tripes, three-fooled. 

Iinpos, unable. Senex, old. 

2. The following, which have e or i in the ablative singular, 
have um in the genitive plural : — 

Ales, winged. Dives, rich. Quadruple x, fourfold. 

' Artifex, skilful. Degener, degenerate. Supplex, suppliant. 

Cicur, tame. Impar, unequal. Triceps, three-headed. 

Coinpar, equal. Inops, poor. Vigil, icatchful. 

Dispar, unequal. Prsepes, sicift. 

To these may be added locuples, rich ; sons, guilty ; and insons, inno- 
cent ; which have um or ium in the genitive plural. Volucer, winged, 
though its ablative is in i, has um in the genitive plural. 

3. Memor, mindful ; immemor, unmindful ; par, equal ; and uber, fertile, 
have i only in the ablative ; but all, except par, have um in the genitive 
plural : dis, ditis, rich, has i in the abl. and um or ium in the gen. plural. 

Note. The accusative plural of adjectives of the third declension, 
as of nouns, sometimes ends in eis, is, or as, instead of es. See § 85. 

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 
§ 115. Some adjectives are defective, others redundant. 

DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

1 Many adjectives, denoting personal qualities or attributes, 
want the neuter gender, unless when occasionally joined to a 
neuter substantive used figuratively. Such are the following :— 

ft 



62 



REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 



§ 116. 



Bicorpor, Degener, Inops, 

Bipes, Dives, Insons, 

Ceelebs, Impos, Invltus, 

Consors, Impubes, Juvenis, 

Compos, Industrius, Locuples, 



Memor, Redux, Supplex, 

Pauper, Senex, Tricorpor, 

Partlceps, Sons, Vigil. 

Princeps, Sospes, 

Puber, or -es, Superstes, 



Victrix and ultrix are feminine in the singular, seldom neuter ; in the 
plural, they are feminine and neuter. Such verbals partake of the nature 
of substantives and adjectives. They correspond to masculines in tor. 
See § 102, 6. 

2. The following want the genitive plural, and are rarely 
used in the neuter gender : — 

Concolor, deses, hebes, perpes, reses, teres, versicolor. 

3. Some adjectives are wholly indeclinable. 

Such are frugi, temperate ; nequam, worthless ; sat or satis, sufficient ; 
semis, half; the plurals aliquot, tot, quot, totide?n, quotquot ; and the cardi- 
nal numbers from quatuor to centum inclusive, and also mille. 

4. The following adjectives are used only in certain cases : — 



Bilicem, ace. ; doubly-tissued. 
Cetera, ceterum, tiie rest, wants the 

nom. sing. masc. 
Decemplicem, ace. ; tenfold. 
Exspes, nom. ; hopeless. 
Inquies, nom.; -etem, ace. ; -ete, abl. ; 

restless. 
Mactus, and macte, nom. ; macte, 

ace. ; increased ; — macti, and 

mactae, nom. pi. 
Necesse, and necessum, nom., ace; 

necessary. 
Plus, nom., ace. ; pluris, gen. ; more ; 



— pi. plures, -a, nom., ace. ; -ium, 
gen. ; Ibus, dot., abl. § 110. 

Potis, nom. sing, and pi., all gen- 
ders ; able. 

Tote, nom. sing., for potest ; possible. 

Septempllcisjg-en. ; -ce,abl.; seven- 
fold. 

Siremps, nom.; sirempse, abl.; a- 
like. 

Tantundem, nom., ace.; tantldem, 
gen. ; so much. 

Trihcem, ace. ; trebly-tissued ; tri- 
llceSj ace. pi. 



REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 



<§> 116. The following adjectives are redundant in termi- 
nation and declension. Those marked r are more rarely used. 

Accllvis, and -us, r, ascending. 
Auxiliaris, and -ius, auxiliary. 



Bijugis,anrf -us, tico-yoked. 
Declivis, and -us, r, descending. 
Exanlmis, and -us, r, lifeless. 
Hilaris, and -us, cheerful. 
Imbecillis, r, and -us, weak. [less. 
Impubes,a7i<i -is, -is or -eris, beard- 
Inermis, and -us, unarmed. 
Infrenis, and -us, unbridled. 
Inquies, and -etus, restless. 
Jocularis, and -ius, r, laughable. 
Multijuges, r, and -i (plur.), many- 



Opulens, and -lentus, rich. 

Prsecox, -coquis, and -coquus, early 
ripe. 

Procllvis, and -us, r, inclined down- 
wards. 

Quadrijugis, and -us, four-yoked. 

Semiannnis, and -us, half-alive. 

Semiermis, and -us, half-armed. 

Semisomnis, and -us, half -asleep . 

Singularis, and -ius, single. 

Subllmis, and -us, r, high. 

UnanTmis, r, and -us, unanimous. 

Violens, r, and -lentus, violent. 



yoked. 

To the above may be added some adjectives in er and is ; as, saluber and 
•briSf celeber and -bris. 



§ 11 7. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



63 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 



§117. Numeral adjectives are divided into three 
principal classes — Cardinal, Ordinal, and Distributive. 

I. Cardinal numbers are those which answer the question 
' How many?' They are, 



Unus, 




one. 


I. 


Duo, 




two. 


11. 


Tres, 




three. 


III. 


Quatuor, 




four. 


IIII. or IV. 


Quinque, 




Jive. 


V. 


Sex, 




six. 


VI. 


Septem, 




seven. 


VII. 


Octo, 




eight. 


VIII. 


Novem, 




nine. 


Villi, or IX. 


Decern, 




ten. 


X. 


Undecim, 




eleven. 


XI. 


Duodecim, 




tioelve. 


XII. 


Tredecim, 




thirteen. 


XIII, 


Quatuordecim, 




fourteen. 


XIII1. or XIV. 


Quindecim, 




fifteen. 


XV. 


Sedecim, or sexdecim, 


sixteen. 


XVI. 


Scptendecim, 




seventeen. 


XVII. 


Octodecim, 




eighteen. 


XV11I. 


Novendecim, 




nineteen. 


XVI11I. or XIX. 


Viginti, 




twenty. 


XX. 


Viginti unus, or 
unus et viginti, 


} 


tiDcnty-one. 


XXI. 


Viginti duo, or ) 
duo et viginti, &c. $ 


twenty-two. 


XXII. 


-Triginta, 




thirty. 


XXX. 


Quadra,ginta, 




forty. 


XXXX. or XL. 


Quinquaginta, 




fifty- 


L. 


Sexaginta, 




sixty. 


LX. 


Septuaginta, 




seventy. 


LXX. 


Octoginta, 




eighty. 


LXXX 


Nonaginta, 




ninety. 


LXXXX. or XC. 


Centum, 




a hundred. 


C. 


Centum unus ; or 
centum et unus 


&cj 


a hundred and one. 


CI. 


Ducenti, -ae, -a, 




two hundred. 


cc. 


Trecenti, 




three hundred. 


ccc. 


Quadringenti, 




four hundred. 


CCCC, or CD. 


Quingenti, 




Jive hundred. 


10, or D. 


Sexcenti, 




six hundred. 


IOC, or DC. 


Septingenti, 




seven hundred. 


IOCC, or DCC. 


Octingenti, 




eight hundred. 


IOCCC, or DCCC. 


Nongenti, 




nine hundred. 


IOCCCC, or DCCCC 


Mille 




a thousand. 


CIO, or M, 



64 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. § 118. 

uo millia, 
bis inille, 



or \ two thousand. CIOCIO, or MM. 



Q 
q 



IOO. 



ten thousand. CCIOO. 





M. 


JV. 


du'-o, 


G. 


du-6'-rum, 


D. 


du-o'-bus, 


Ac. 


du'-os, or du 


V. 


du'-o, 


Ab. 


du-o'-bus. 



mque millia, or ) r ,, , 

1 ,\ > ucc thousand 

uinquies mille, ) J 

Decern millia, or ) , .» , 

decies mille, j len thousand. 

C e:S s n mi, , le', < ' r } -*«**»* ««^—- CCCIODD. 

Remarks. 

<§> 118. 1. The first three cardinal numbers are declined : 
those from four to a hundred inclusive are indeclinable ; those 
denoting hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus. 
For the declension of units and tres, see §§ 107 and 109. 
Duo is thus declined : — 

Plural. 

F. JV. 

du'-ae, du'-o, 

du-a'-rum, du-o'-rum, 
du-a'-bus, du-o'-bus, 
du'-as, du'-o, 

du'-ae, du'-o, 

du-a'-bus. du-o'-bus. 
Duorum, dudrum, are often contracted into duum, especially when 
joined with millium. 
Amho, both, is declined like duo. 

2. The cardinal numbers, except unus and mille, are used in 
the plural only. 

The plural of unus is used with nouns which have no singular, or 
whose singular has a different sense from the plural ; as, una castra, one 
camp ; una aides, one house. So also with nouns denoting several things 
considered as one whole ; as, una vestimenta, one suit of clothes. 

3. Thirteen, sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen, are often expressed by 
two numbers united by et ; thus, decern et tres, decern et sex, decern et sep- 
tcin, decern et octo ; in which the larger number usually precedes. 

From twenty to a hundred, the smaller number with et is put first, or 
the larger generally without et; as, unus et vigintl, or viginti unus. Above 
one hundred, the larger precedes, with or without et; as, centum et unus, 
or centum unus ; treccnti sexaginta sex, or trecenti et sexaginta sex. Et is 
never twice used. 

4. For eighteen, twenty-eight, &c, and for nineteen, twenty-nine, &c. 
(excepting sixty-eight and sixty-nine), a subtractive expression is more 
frequent than the additive form ; as, duodeviginti, two from twenty ; un- 
dcxiginti, one from twenty ; duodetriginta, undetriginta, &c. Neither un 
(unus) nor duo can be declined in these expressions. 

5. The poets sometimes make use of numeral adverbs in expressing 
small cardinal numbers ; as, bis sex, for duodecim ; bis centum, for ducenti. 



<§> 119. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 65 

Numbers above a hundred thousand are always expressed in this way ; 
as, decks centum mittia ; but the cardinal numbers after the adverbs are 
sometimes omitted ; as, decics ccntena, i. e. millia ; decies, i. e. centum 
millla. 

6. Mille is used either as a substantive or an adjective. 

When taken substantively, it is indeclinable in the singular number, 
and, in the plural, has millia, millium, millibus, &c. ; as, mille hominum, a 
thousand men ; duo millia hominum, two thousand men, &c. When 
mille is declined in the plural, the things numbered are put in the geni- 
tive, as in the preceding examples, unless a declined numeral comes 
between ; as, habuit tria millia trecentos milites. 

As an adjective, mille is plural only, and indeclinable ; as, mille homines, 
a thousand men ; bis mille hominibus, with two thousand men. 

7. Capitals were used by the Romans to mark numbers. The let- 
ters employed for this purpose were C. I. L. V. X., which are, there- 
.fore, called Numeral Letters. I. denotes one; V.five; X. ten; L. fifty; and 

C. a hundred. By the -various combinations of these five letters, all the 
different numbers are expressed. 

The repetition of a numeral letter repeats its value. Thus, II. signi- 
fies two; HI. three; XX. twenty ; XXX. thirty ; CC. two hundred, &c. 
But V. and L. are never repeated. 

When a letter of a less value is placed before a letter of a greater, the 
less takes away what it stands for from the greater ; but being placed 
after, it adds what it stands for to the greater ; thus, 

IV. Four. V. Five. VI. Six. 

IX. Nine. X. Ten. XI. Eleven. 

XL. Forty. L. Fifty. LX. Sixty. 

XC. Ninety. C. A hundred. CX. A hundred and ten. 

A thousand was marked thus, CIO, which, in later times, was contracted 
into M. Five hundred is marked thus, 10, or, by contraction, D. 

The annexing of to 10 makes its value ten times greater ; thus, 100 
marks five thousand; and 1000, fifty thousand. 

The prefixing of C, together with the annexing ofO, to the number 
CIO, makes its value ten times greater ; thus, CCIOO denotes ten thou- 
sand ; and CCCIOOO, a hundred thousand. The Romans, according 
to Pliny, proceeded no further in this method of notation. If they had 
occasion to express a larger number, they did it by repetition ;. thus, 
CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO, signified two hundred thousand, &c. 

We sometimes find thousands expressed by a straight line drawn over 
the top of the numeral letters. Thus, III. denotes three thousand; X., 
ten thousand. 

$ 119. II. Ordinal numbers are such as denote order or 
rank. They all end in us, and are declined like bonus ; as, 
primus, first; secundus, second. 

III. Distributive numbers are those which indicate an equal 
division among several persons or things ; as, singuli, one by 
one, or each ; bini, two by two, or two to each, &,c. They are 
declined like the plural of bonus, except that they usually have 
um for orum m the genitive plural. 

The following table contains the ordinal and distributive 
numbers, and the corresponding numeral adverbs : — 
6* 



66 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



1 
2 
3 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 
22. 

30. 

40. 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 
100. 
200. 
300. 

400. 

500. 
600. 
700. 
800. 
900. 

1000. 



Ordinal. 
Primus, first. 
Secundus, second. &c 
Tertius. 
. Quartus. 
. Quintus. 
. Sextus. 
. Septimus. 
. Octavus. 
Nonus. 
Declmus. 
Undeclmus. 
Duodeclmus. 
Tertius decimus. 
Quartus decimus. 
Quintus decimus. 
Sextus decimus. 
Septimus decimus. 
Octavus decimus. 
Nonus decimus. 
C Viceslmus, or ) 
I vigeslmus. J 
Viceslmus primus. 
Viceslmus secundus. 
C Triceslmus, or ) 
I trigeslmus. ) 
Quadrageslmus. 
Quinquageslmus. 
Sexageslmus. 
Septuageslmus. 
Octogeslmus. 
Nonageslmus. 
Centeslmus. 
Ducenteslmus. 
Trecenteslmus. 

Quadringenteslmus. 5 

Quingenteslmus. 

Sexcentesimus. 

Septingenteslmus. 

Octingenteslmus. 

Nongenteslmus. 

Milleslmus. 



2000. Bis milleslmus. 



Distributive. 
Singuli. 
. Bini. 
Terni, or trini. 
Quaterni. 
Quini. 
Seni. 
Septeni. 
Octoni. 
Noveni. 
Deni. 
Undeni. 
Duodeni. 
Terni deni. 
Quaterni deni. 
Quini deni. 
Seni deni. 
Septeni deni. 
Octoni deni. 
Noveni deni. 

Viceni. 

Viceni singuli. 
Viceni bini. 

Triceni. 

Quadrageni. 

Quinquageni. 

Sexageni. 

Septuageni. 

Octogeni. 

Nonage ni. 

Centeni. 

Duceni. 

Treceni, or trecenteni. 

Quadringeni, or ) 

quadringenteni. ) 
Quingeni. 

Sexceni, or sexcenteni. 
Septmgeni. 
Octingeni. 
Nongeni. 
Milleni, or ) 

singula millia. ) ' 
Bis milleni, or ' 

bina millia. 



^ 120. 

Numeral Adverbs. 

Semel, once. 

Bis. ticice. 

Ter, thrice. 

Qnntev .fouriimes. 

Quinquies, &c. 

Sexies. 

Septies. 

Octies. 

Novies. 

Decies. 

Undecies. 

Duodecies. 

Terdecies. 

Quatuordecies. 

Quindecies. 

Sedecies. 

Decies et septies. 

Duodevicies. 

Undevicies. 

Vicies. 

Semel et vicies. 
Bis et vicies, &c 

Tricies. 

Quadragies. 
Quinquagies. 
Sexagies. 
Septuagies. 
Octogies. 
Nonagies. 
Centies. 
Ducenties. 
Trecenties, or ) 
tricenties. ) 
Quadringenties. 
Quingenties. 
Sexcenties. 
Septingenties. 
Octingenties. 
Noningenties 

Millies. 
Bis millies. 



Remarks. 

or *I5& ofin^dlf/lT; *""" is used > if two ° n * ™ *r° k ™ 

&s decimus et tertius, or decimus terttus * g "> Wlth " WlUlout et ' 

Twenty-first, thirtyfirst, &c, are often expressed by unus et viceslmus. 



§ 121, 122. ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. 67 

umis et tricesimus, &c; and twenty-second, &c., by duo, or alter et vicesl- 
mus, &c, in whicli duo is not changed. In the other compound numbers, 
the larger precedes without et, or the smaller with et ; as, viceslmus quar- 
tus, or quartus et viceslmus. 

For eighteenth, &c, to fifty-eighth, and for nineteenth, &c, to fifly- 
ninth, duodevicesimus, &c, and undevicesimus, &c, are often used. 

3. In the distributives, eighteen, thirty-eight, forty-eight, and nineteen 
and twenty-nine, are often expressed by duodeviceni, &c, and undeviceni y 
&c. 

4. Distributives are sometimes used by the poets for cardinal numbers; 
as, Una spicula, two darts. So likewise in prose, with nouns that want the 
singular ; as, bincenuptice, two weddings. 

The singular of some distributives is used in the sense of a multiplica- 
tive ; as, binus, twofold. So ternus, quinus, septenus. 

5. For twenty-eight times and thirty-nine times, duodetricies and unde- 
quadragies are found. 

§121. To the preceding classes may be added the fol- 
lowing : — 

1. Multiplicatives, which denote how many fold. They all 
end in plex, and are declined like felix; as, 

Simplex, single. Quadrti plex, fourfold. 

Duplex, twofold, or double. Quincuplex, fivefold. 

Triplex, threefold. Centiiplex, a hundredfold. 

2. Proportionals, which denote how many times one thing is 
greater than another ; as, duplus, twice as great ; triplus, quad- 
ruplus, octuplus, decuplus. They are declined like bonus. 

3. Temporals, which denote time ; as, bimus, two years old ; 
trimus, three years old ; quadrlmus, &c. Also, biennis, of two 
years' continuance; quadriennis, quinquennis, &,c. So bimestris t 
of two months' continuance; trimestris, &c, biduus, &c. 

4. Those which denote how many parts a thing contains ; as, 
binarius, of two parts ; ternarius, &g. 

5. Interrogatives ; as, quot, how many 1 quotus, of what num- 
ber ? quoteni, how many each 1 quoties, how many times 1 Their 
correlatives are, tot, totidem, so many ; aliquot, some ; which, 
with quot, are indeclinable ; toties, so often ; aliquoties, several 
times. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 122. Adjectives may be divided into two classes — those 
which denote a variable, and those which denote an invariable, 
quality or limitation. 

Thus, bonus, good, alius, high, and opacus, dark, denote variable attri- 
butes ; but emeus, brazen, triplex, threefold, and diurnus, daily, do not 
admit of different degrees in their signification. 



ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. $ 123. 

The relations of inferiority, equality, or superiority, which 

differenl objects bear to each oilier, in regard to variable quali- 

i xpressed in Latin in different ways. 

Inferiority may be denoted by prefixing to an adjective the 
adverbs minus, less, and minime, least; as, jucundus, pleasant ; 
minus jucundus, less pleasant; minime jucundus, least pleasant. 

A Bmall degree of a quality is indicated by sub prefixed to 
an adjective; as, dijjicilis, difficult; subdifficilis, somewhat 
difficult. 

Equality may he denoted by tarn followed by qudm; enque 
followed by ac, &-C. ; as, hebes ceque ac pecus, as stupid as a 
brute. 

<§>123. The relation of superiority, to which alone the 
name of comparison is commonly applied, is denoted either by 
prefixing to an adjective certain adverbs or prepositions, or by 
peculiar terminations. Various degrees of superiority are de- 
noted with different degrees of precision, by the prepositions 
per and prm prefixed to adjectives, and by different adverbs, and 
other qualifying clauses. The terminational comparison, and 
its equivalent form, expressed by the adverbs magis, more, and 
maxime, most, prefixed to the adjective, denote not a precise, 
but only a relative, degree of superiority. 

That form of an adjective which simply denotes a quality, 
without reference to other degrees of the same quality, is 
called the positive degree; as, alius, high; mitis, mild. 

The degrees of relative superiority are two — the com- 
parative and the superlative. 

The comparative denotes that the quality belongs to one 
of two objects, or sets of objects, in a greater degree than to 
the other ; as, altior, higher ; mitior, milder. 

The superlative denotes that the quality belongs to one 
object, or set of objects, in a greater degree than to any of 
the rest ; as, altissimus, highest ; mitissmus, mildest 

Remarks. 

1. The comparative is also used to denote that, at different times, or in 
different circumstances, a quality belongs to the same object in different 
degrees; as, est sapientior quitm olim fuit,he is wiser than he was for- 
merly. 

2. The comparative sometimes expresses the proportion between two 
qualities of the same object; as, est doctior quhm sapientior, he is more 
learned than wise ; that is, his learning is greater than his wisdom. 



^ 125. ADJECTIVES. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 69 

Masc. Fern. Neut 
$ 124. The terminational ) . 

comparative ends in ) lor > l0r > tus ; 

the terminational superlative in issimus, issima, issimum. 

These terminations are added to the root of the positive; as, 

aftus, altior, aftissimus; high, higher, highest. 

mitis, mitior, mzVissimus; mild, milder, mildest. 

fclir, gen. fclic\s,fdicior,fcUcissimus; happy, happier, happiest. 

In like manner compare 

Arc'-tus, strait. Ca'-rus, dear. Cle'-mens, gen. -tis, merciful. 

Ca'-pax, capacious. Cru-de'-lis, cruel. In'-ers, gen. -tis } sluggish. §23. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

<§> 125. 1. Adjectives in er form their superlative by adding 
rimus to that termination ; as, accr, active ; gen. acris ; compar- 
ative, acrior: superlative, acerrlmus. 

In like manner pauper, paupcrrlmus. Vetus has a similar superlative, 
veterrtmus, as if from veter. 

2. Seven adjectives in lis form their superlative by adding 
limits to the root : — 

Facllis, facilior, facillimus, easy. 

Difficllis, difficilior, difficillimus, difficult. 

Gracilis, gracilior, gracilllmus, slender. 

Humllis, humilior, humilllmus, low. 

Imbecillis, imbecillior, imbecilllmus, weak. 

Similis, similior, similllmus, like. 

DissimTlis, dissimilior, dissimilllmus, unlike. 

3. Five adjectives in ficus derive their comparatives and 

superlatives from obsolete adjectives in ens : — 

Beneflcus, beneficentior, beneficentissimus, beneficent. 

Honoriflcus, honorificentior, honorificentisslmus, honorable. 

Magniflcus, magnificentior, magnificentissimus, splendid. 

Muniflcus, munificentior, munificentissimus, liberal. 

Maleficus, maleficentissimus, hurtful. 

Adjectives In dicehs and volcns form their comparatives and superlatives 
regularly ; but instead of those positives, forms in dicus and volus are 
more common ; as, 

Benevolens, or benevOlus, benevolentior, benevolentisstmus, benevolent. 

4. These five have regular comparatives, but irregular super- 
latives : — 

Dexter, dexterior, dextimus, right. 

Extera, (fern.) exterior, extimus, or extremus, outward. 



70 



ADJECTIVES. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. $ 126. 



Postera, (fcm.) posterior, postremus, or postumus, hind. 

Inferos, inferior, infimus, or imus, low. 

Superus, superior, supremus, or summus, high. 

The nominative singular of pas/era does not occur in the masculine, 
and that of exiira wants good authority. 

5. The following are very irregular in comparison 

optimus, good, better, 

pessimus, bad, icorse, 

maximus, 

minimus, 

plurimus, 

plurima, 

plurlmum, 

nequisslmus, 



Bonus, 

Mai us, 

Magnus, 

Parvus, 

Multus, 

Multa, 

Multum, 

Nequam, 

Frugi, 



melior, 
pejor, 

major, 
minor, 



good, 
bad, 
great, 
Little, 

much, 



greater, 



best, 
worst, 
greatest, 
least. 

most. 



plus,* 

nequior, 

frugalior, frugal issimus, 

All these form their comparatives and superlatives from obsolete adjec- 
tives, except magnus, whose regular forms are contracted. 



worthless, 
frugal. 



DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 



§ 126. 1. Seven adjectives want the positive :— 



Citerior, citimus, nearer. 
Deterior, deterrimus, worse. 
Interior, inttmus, inner. 
Ocior, ocisslmus, swifter. 



Prior, primus, former. 
Propior, proximus, nearer. 
Ulterior, u\tlmus,fa7'ther. 



2. Eight want the terminational comparative :- 



Consultus, consultissTmus, skilful. 
Falsus, falsisslmus,jfa/se. 
Inclytus, inclytissimus, renowned. 
Invictus, invictisslmus, invincible. 
Meritus, meritisslmus (rarely used), 
deserting. 



Par, parisslmus, equal. 
Persuasus, persuasissimum 

ter), persuaded. 
Sacer, sacerrlmus, sacred. 



(neu« 



3. Eight have very rarely the terminational comparative :- 



Aprlcus, apricissimus, sunny. 
Bellus, bellisslmusjjme. 
Comis, comisslmus, courteous. 
Diversus, diversissimus, different. 



Fidus, ft. oWssimus, faithful. 
Invitus, invitisslmus, unwilling. 
JNovus, novissimus, new. 
Vetus, veterrlmus, old. 



4. The following want the terminational superlative :- 



Adolescens, adolescentior, 7 
Juvems, junior, 3 J = 

Alacer, alacrior, active. 
Ccecus, coecior. blind. 
Diuturnus, diuturnior, lasting 
Jejunus, ]c junior, fasting. 
Infinltus, infinitior, unlimited. 



Ingens, ingentior, great. 
Licens, licentior, extravagant. 
Longinquus, longinquior, distant. 
Oplmus, opimior, rich. 
Procllvis, proclivior, ) inclined 
Pronus, pronior, ) doionwards. 
sequior, worse. 



See $110. 



«§> 127. ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. 7L 

Propinquus, propinquior, neighbor- Senex, senior, old. 

in ir. Silvester, or silvestris, silvestrior, 
Salufaris, salutarior, salutary. woody. 

Satis, sufficient; satius, preferable. Sinister, sinisterior, left. 

Satur, saturior,/wZ/. Supinus, supinior, lying on the back. 

The superlative of juoZnis and adolescens is supplied by minimus natu, 
youngest ; and that ot" senex by maximus natu, oldest. The comparatives 
minor natu and major natu sometimes also occur. 

Most adjectives also in ilis, dlis, and bllis, and many in anus, Ivis, and 
inquus, have no terminational superlative. 

5. Many adjectives have no terminational comparative or su- 
perlative. Such are, 

(a.) Adjectives in bundus, imus, inus (except divlnus), orus, most in 
ivus, and in us pure (except quus). Yet arduus, assiduus, cgregius, exig- 
vus, industrius, perpetuus, pius, strcnuus, and vacuus, have sometimes a 
terminational comparison. So, dropping i, noxior, innoxior, sobrior. 

(b.) The following — almus, calvus, canus, cicur, claudus, degener, delirus, 
dispar, cge?ms, impar, invidus, lacer, memor, mirus, pradltus, precox, ru- 
dis, sulcus, sospes, vulgaris, implgcr, superstes, nudus, and some others. 

$ 127. The comparative and superlative may also be 
formed by prefixing to the positive the adverbs magis, more, and 
maxime, most; as, idoncus, fit; magis idoncus, maxime idoneus. 
Valde, imprimis, apprimc, admodum, &c, and the prepositions 
prcB and per, and sometimes perquam, prefixed to an adjective, 
denote a high degree of the quality. 

The force of the comparative is increased by prefixing etiam, 
even, or yet ; and that of both comparative and superlative, by 
prefixing longe, or multo, much, far ; as, longe nobilissimus , 
longe melior ; iter multo facilius, multo maxima pars. 

Qudm before the superlative renders it more emphatic ; as, 
qudmdoctissimus, extremely learned ; qudm celerrime, as speedily 
as possible. 

All adjectives whose signification admits of different degrees, 
if they have no terminational comparison, may be compared by 
means of adverbs. 

Instead of the comparative and superlative degrees, the posi- 
tive, with the prepositions prm, ante, /prater, or supra, is some- 
times used; as, prce nobis beatus (Cic), happier than we; ante 
alias pulchr it ucUne insignis (Liv.), most beautiful. Sometimes 
the preposition is used in connection with the superlative ; as, 
ante alios pulelierrimus omnes (Virg.) 

Among adjectives which denote an invariable quality or 
limitation, and which, therefore, cannot be compared, are those 
denoting matter, time, number, possession, country, part, inter- 
rogation ; also compounds otjugum, somnus, gero, and fero, and 
many others. 



72 ADJECTIVES. DERIVATION. $ 128. 



DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

$ 128. Derivative adjectives are formed chiefly from 
nouns, from other adjectives, and from verbs. 

I. Those derived from nouns and adjectives are called 
denominatives. The following are the principal classes : — 

1. The termination eus, added to the root, denotes the ma- 
terial of which a thing is made ; as, aureus, golden ; argenteus, 
of silver ; ligneus, wooden ; vitreus, of glass ; from aurum, 
argentum, &c. 

The termination inus has sometimes the same meaning ; as, 
adamantinus, of adamant ; cedrinus, of cedar ; from addmas 
and cedrus. So Inus ; as, terrenus, of earth, from terra. 

The termination eus is found only in possessives of Greek 
origin; as, A chilleiis, of Achilles ; Sophocleus, &c. 

2. The terminations dlis, dris, elis, His, otitis, icius, icus, ius, 
and inus, denote belonging or relating to; as, capitalis, relat- 
ing to the life ; from caput. 

So cornitialis, regalis ; Apollinaris, consuldris, papillaris ; civllis, hostilis, 
juvenilis ; aquatllis, fiuviattlis ; tribunicius,pairicius ; bellicus,civicus, Ger- 
manlcus ; accusatorius , imperatorius, regius ; caninus, equlnus, fcrinus ; 
from comitia, rex, Apollo, consul, populus, civis, &c. 

The termination His sometimes expresses character; as, 
hostilis, hostile ; puerilis, boyish ; from hostis and puer. 

3. The termination arius generally denotes profession or oc- 
cupation ; as, argentarius, a silversmith ; from argentum ; — 
coriarius, statuarius; from corium and statua. When added to 
numeral adjectives, it denotes how many parts a thing con- 
tains. See § 121, 4. 

Some of this class are properly substantives. 

4. The terminations osus and lentus denote abundance, ful- 
ness; as, animosus, full of courage ;fraudulentus, given to fraud; 
from animus and fraus. So lapidosus, vindsus, turbulentus, 
violentus. Before lentus, a connecting vowel is inserted, which 
is commonly u. 

Adjectives of this class are called amplificatives. See § 104, 13. 

5. From adjectives are formed diminutives in the same man- 
ner as from nouns ; as, dulciculus, sweetish ; duriusculus, some- 
what hard ; from dulcis and durus. So lentulus, misellus, par~ 
villus, &c. See § 100, 3, and § 104, 12. 

6. From the names of places, and especially of towns, are 
derived adjectives in ensis, inus, as, and anus, denoting of or 
belonging to such places 



<§, 129. ADJECTIVES. DERIVATION. 73 

Thus from Athence is formed Atheniensis, Athenian ; from Cannes, Can- 
nensis. In like manner, from castra and circus come castrensis, circensis. 

Those in inus are formed from names of places ending in ia and turn ; 
as, Aricia, Ariclnus ; Caudium, Caudinus ; Capitolium, Capitollnus ; Latium, 
Latlnus, Some names of towns, of Greek origin, with other terminations, 
also form adjectives in inus ; as, Tarentum, Tarcntlnus. 

Most of those in as are formed from nouns in um ; some from nouns in 
a; as, Arplnum, Arpinas ; Capena, Capenas. 

Those in anus are formed from names of towns of the first declension, 
or fcom certain common nouns; as, Alba, Alb anus ; Roma, Romdnus ; 
Ciance, Cumdnus ; Thebce, Tkebdnus ;—fons, fontdnus ; mons, montdnus ; 
urbs, urbdnus ; oppldum, oppiddnus. 

Adjectives with the terminations anus and Inus are also formed 
from names of men ; as, Sulla, Sulldnus ; Jugurtha, Jugurthlnus. 

Names of towns in polls form adjectives in polltanus ; as, 
Neapolis, Ne op o lit anus. 

Greek names of towns generally form adjectives in ius ; as, 
Rhodus, Rhodius ; Laccdamion, Laced&monius ; — but those in 
a form them in onus ; as, Larissa, Larissaus ; Smyrna, Smyr- 
ncPAis. 

7. A large class of derivative adjectives, though formed from 
nouns, have the terminations of perfect participles. They 
generally signify wearing or furnished with ; as, 

aldtus, winged ; barbdtus, bearded ; galedtus, helmeted ; auritus, long- 
eared ; turritus, turreted ; cornutus, horned; from ala, barba, galea^ 
auris, &c. 

<§> 129. II. Adjectives derived from verbs are called verbal 
adjectives. Such are the following classes: — 

1. The termination bundus, added to the first root of the 
verb, with a connecting vowel, which is commonly that of the 
verb, has the general meaning of the present participle ; as, 

errabundus, moribundus, from erro, morior, and equivalent to errans, 
moriens. In many the meaning is somewhat strengthened ; as, gratula- 
bundus, full of congratulations ; lacrimabundus, weeping profusely. 

Most verbals in bundus are from verbs of the first conjugation, a few 
from those of the third, and but one from the second and fourth re- 
spectively. 

Some verbal adjectives in enndus have a similar sense ; as, rubicundus, 
verecundus, from rubeo and vereor. 

2. The termination idus, added to the root, especially of 
neuter verbs, denotes the quality or state expressed by the 
verb ; as, 

algidus, cold ; calidus, warm ; madtdus, moist ; rapldus, rapid ; from 
algco, caleo, madeo, rapid: 

3. The termination bills, added to the root of a verb, with 
its connecting vowel, denotes passively, capability, or desert ; as, 

amabilis, worthy to be loved ; credibilis, deserving credit ; placabilis, 
easy to be appeased ; from amo, credo, placo. It is rarely active ; as, a£r 
mcabilis. Plin. 

7 



74 ADJECTIVES. COMPOSITION. § 130, 131. 

In adjectives of this form, derived from verbs of the third conjugation, 
the connecting vowel is i ; sometimes also in those from verbs of the second 
conjugation, i is used instead of e ; as, horribilis, tcrribilis, from horreo 
and terreo. 

This termination is sometimes added to the third root, with a change of 
u into i; as,flexibUis, coctibilis, scnsibllis, from fiecto (Jicxu), &.c. 

4. The termination Mis, added either to the first root of a 
verb, or to the third root, after u is removed, has usually a pas- 
sive, but sometimes an active sense ; as. 

agUis, active ; flexllis, easy to be bent ; ductills, ductile ; sutilis, sewed ; 
coctllis, baked ; fertilis, fertile ; from ago, <fcc. 

5. The termination icius or itius, added to the third root of 
the verb, after u is removed, has a passive sense, as jictitius, 
feigned ; conductitius, to be hired ; suppositious, substituted, 
from jingo (Jictx), &<c. 

6. The termination ax, added to the root of a verb, denotes an 
inclination, often one that is faulty ; as, audax, audacious ; lo- 
quax, talkative ; rapax, rapacious ; from audeo, loquor, rapio. 

§ 130. III. Adjectives derived from participles, and re- 
taining their form, are called participials ; as, amans, fond 
of; doctus, learned. 

IV. Some adjectives are derived from adverbs, and are called 
adve? bials ; as, crastinus, of to-morrow ; hodiernus, of this day ; 
from eras and hodie. 

V. Some adjectives are derived from prepositions, and may 
be called prepositionals ; as, contrarius, contrary, from contra ; 
posterus, subsequent, from post. 



COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 131. Compound adjectives are formed variously : — 

1. Of two nouns ; as, capripes, goat-footed — of caper and 
pes ; ignicomus, having fiery hair — of ignis and coma. 

2. Of a noun and an adjective ; as, noctivagus, wandering in 
the night — of nox and vagus. 

3. Of a noun and a verb ; as, cornigcr, bearing horns — of 
eornu and gero ; letifcr, bringing death — of Mum and fero. 
So carnivorus, causidicus, ignivomus, lucifugus, pariiceps. 

4. Of an adjective and a noun ; as, csquesvus, of the same 
age — of aquus and cevum ; celeripes, swift-footed — of celer and 
pes. So ccntimanus, decennis, magnanimus, misericors, unan- 
imis. 

5. Of two adjectives ; as, centum geminus, having a hun- 
dred arms ; multicavus, having many cavities. 



<§> 132. PRONOUNS. 75 

6. Of an adjective and a verb ; as, brcviloquens, speaking 
briefly — of brcvis and loquor; magnificus, magnificent — ofmag- 
mts Tiu&facio. 

I. Of an adjective and a termination ; as, qualiscunque, 
quotcunqiie, uterque. 

Remark. When the former part of the compound is a noun 
or adjective, it usually adds i to its root. If the second word begins 
with a vowel, an elision takes place; as, magnanimus — of mag- 
nvs and animus. 

8. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, bicorpor, two-bodied — of bis 
and corpus. 

9. Of an adverb and an adjective ; as, malefidus, unfaith- 
ful ; malesdnus, insane. 

10. Of an adverb and a verb ; as, beneficus, beneficent — of 
bene andfacio; malevolus, malevolent — of male and volo. 

II. Of a preposition and a noun; as, amens, mad — of a and 
mens. So consors, decolor, deformis, implumis, incrmis. 

12. Of a preposition and an adjective ; as, concavus, con- 
cave ; infidus, unfaithful. So improvidus, percdrus, prcsdives, 
subalbidus. 

13. Of a preposition and a verb; as, continuus, continual— of 
con and tenco; inscius, ignorant — of in and scio. So pracipuus, 
promiscuus, superstes. 

Remark. When the former part is a preposition, its final consonant is 
sometimes changed, to adapt it to that which follows it j as, imprudens — 
of in and prudens. See § 196. 

PRONOUNS. 

<$> 132. A pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
of a noun. 

There are eighteen simple pronouns : — 

Ego, T. Hie, this or he. Suus, his, hers, its, &c. 

Tu, thou. Is, that or he. Cujus ? whose ? 

Sui, of himself, &c. Quis ? who ? Noster, our. 

[lie, that or he. Qui, who. Vester, your. 

Ipse, himself '. Meus, my. Nostras, of our country. 

Iste, that or he. Tuus, thy. Cujas? of what country? 

Three of these — ego, tu, and sui-— are substantives ; the re- 
maining fifteen, and all the compound pronouns, are adjectives. 

Ego and tu are a species of appellatives of general application. Ego is 
used by a speaker, to designate himself; tu, to designate the person whom 
he addresses. Ego is of the first person, tu of the second. 



it) 



SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. $ 1^3. 



IB also a general appellative, of the third person, and has always a 

ive signification. The oblique cases ofeowand tu are also used re- 

aen the subjed of tin- proposition is of the first or second 

person. . .. .. ,_ 

The remaining pronouns are adjectives, as they serve to limit the mean- 
ing of substantives ; and they are pronouns, because, like substantive 
pronouns, they may designate any object in certain situations or circum- 
stanci ■ c . 

Mi us, tuus, suits, noster, vester, and nostras, have the same extent ot sig- 
ion as the substantive pronouns from which they are derived, and are 
equivalent to the genitive cases of those pronouns. 

Pronouns, like substantives and adjectives, are declined ; but 
they all want the vocative, except tu, incus, noster, and nostras. 
Sui also, from the nature of its signification, wants the nomina- 
tive in both numbers. 

The substantive pronouns take the gender of the objects which 
they denote. The adjective pronouns, like adjectives, have 
three genders. 

SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 133. The substantive pronouns are thus declined : — 
Singular. 

N. e'-go, I. tu, thou. ■ 

G. me'-i, of me. tu'-i, of thee. { ^^fto^* ^ 

D. mi'-hi, to me. tib'-i,* to thee. sib'-i* to himself, &lc. 

Ac. me, me. te, thee. se, himself, &,c. 

V. tu, O thou. 

Ah. me, with me. te, with thee. se, with himself, &,c. 

Plural. 
N. nos, we. vos, ye or you. : 



e c nostrum > f ves'-trum or> of sa L it f themselves. 

( or nos'-tn, ^ J ves'-tn, S J 

D. no'-bis, to us. vo'-bis, to you. sib'-i, to themselves. 

Ac. nos, us. vos, you. se, themselves. 

V. vos, O ye or you. 

Ah. no'-bis, with us. vo'-bis, with you. se, with themselves. 

He marks. 

1. Mi and mi ■ onus for mihi. So min for mihine, Pers. 

2. The syllable wrt is sometimes annexed to the substantive pronouns, 
in an intensive sense, either with or without ipse; as, egdmet, I myself ] 

* See § IS, 2. 



§ 134. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 



77 



mihimrt ipsi, for myself. It is not annexed, however, to the genitives plural, 
nor to tu in the nominative or vocative. In these cases of tu, tute or 
tuicmct is used. In the accusative and ablative, tcte in the singular, and 
sesc in both numbers, are employed intensively. Mcptc, mcd, and ted, for 
me and te, and tis for tui, occur in the comic writers. 

3. Nostrum and vc strum are contracted from nostrorum, nostrdrum, and 
vestrdram, vest r drum. 

4. The preposition cum is affixed to the ablatives of these pronouns in 
both numbers j as, mccum, nobiscum, &c. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 134. Adjective pronouns may be divided into the 

following classes : — demonstrative, intensive, relative, inter- 
rogative, indefinite, possessive, and patrial. 
Note. Some pronouns belong to two of these classes. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Demonstrative pronouns are such as specify what object 
is meant. 

They are iUe, iste, hie, and is, and their compounds, and are 
thus declined : — 



Singular. 

M. F. JV. 

N. il'-le, il'-la, il'-lud, 

G. il-li'-us,* il-H'-us, il-li'-us, 

D. il'-li, il'-li, il'-li, 

Ac. il'-lum, il'-lam, il'-lud, 

V. 



Ab. il'-lo. 



il'-la. il'-lo. 



Plural. 

M. F. JV. 

il'-li, il'-lae, il'-la, 

il-16'-rum, il-la'-rum, il-16'-rum, 

il'-lis, il'-lis, il'-lis, 

il'-los, il'-las, il'-la, 



il'-lis. 



il'-lis. 



il'-lis. 



Singular. 



N. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 
V. 

Ab. 


M. F. 

hie, haec, 
hu'-jus, hu'-jus, 
huic,f huic, 
hunc, hanc, 


JV. 
hoc, 
hu'-jus, 
huic, 
hoc, 


hoc. hac. 


hoc. 




* See $ 15. 

7* 





Iste is declined like ille. 
M. 



Plural. 
F. JV. 

hi, hae, haec, 

ho'-rum, ha'-rum, ho'-rum, 

his, his, his, 

hos, has, haec, 



his. 



his. 



his. 



f Pronounced hike. See ( 9. 



73 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



§134. 



Singular. 
M. F .V. 
N. is, e'-a, id, 
G. e'-jus, e'-jus, e'-jus, 
D. e'-i, e'-i, e'-i, 
Ac. e'-um, e'-ara, id, 

Ah e'-o. e'-a e'-o. 



M. 

i'-i, 

e-o'-rum, 



Plural 
F. 

e'-ae, 

e-a'-rum, 



e'-a, 

e-o'-rum, 



i'-is or e'-is, i'-is or e'-is, i'-is or e'-is, 



e'-os, 



e-as, 



■is or e'-is. i'-is or e'-is. i'-is or e'-is. 



2?e?72crr&s. 

1. Instead of ille, ollus was anciently used; whence olli in Virgil. 17/<z>, 
fern., for illius and iZZi, is found in Lucretius and Cato, as also hac for hop. 
in Plautus and Terence. Eii for ei, im for earn, and ibus and iitais for iis, 
occur in Plautus ; and eae, fem., for ei i and tabus for us, in Cato. 

2. From ecce, lo ! and the accusative of ille, iste, and is, are formed ecc?7- 
lum, eccillam, eccillud, eccum, eccam, &c., in both numbers. Eccillum is 
sometimes contracted into eZZwm. £cca, nom. fem., also occurs. 

3. Istic and z7Z£c are compounded of iste hie, and ille hie. The former 
sometimes retains the aspirate, as isthic. They are more emphatic than ille 
and isle. 



Istic is thus declined : — 



JV. 



Singular. 

F. 

ist'-sec, ist'-oc, or ist'-uc, 

ist'-anc, ist'-oc, or ist'-uc. 

ist'-ac. ist'-oc. 



Plural. 
F. JV. 

Ac] ist '" ffiC - 



M. 



M. 

JV. ist'-ic, 
Ac. ist'-unc, 
Ah. ist'-oc. 

Mlic is dechned in the same manner. 

4. Ce, intensive, is sometimes added to the several cases of hie, and 
rarely to some cases of the other demonstrative pronouns ; as, hujusce, 
hosce, hasce, hisce : illdce, istdce, ejusce, istcecce, Usee : in gen. pi. horuncc 
or horunc, &c. When ne, interrogative, is also annexed, ce becomes ci; as, 
hceccine, hoscine, his cine ; istuccine,istaccine,istoscine; illiccine,illanccine. 

5. To the genitives singular of the demonstrative and relative pronouns, 
modi, the genitive of modus, is often annexed, either with or without an 
intervening particle ) as, hujusmodi, or hujuscemodi, of this sort ; cujus- 
modi, &c. 

6. Dem is annexed to is, forming idem, the same, which is 
thus declined : — 







Singular. 






M. 


F. 


JV. 


JV. 


i'-dem, 


e'-a-dem, 


i'-dem, 


G. 


e-jus -dem, 


e-jus'-dem, 


e-jus'-dem, 


D. 


e-I'-dem, 


e-I'-dem, 


e-I'-dem, 


Ac. 


e-un'-dem, 


e-an'-dem, 


i'-dem, 


V. 

Ah. 








e-o'-dem. 


e-a'-dem. 


e-o'-dera. 



§ 136. INTENSIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 79 

Plural. 

M. F. JY. 

JY. i-I'-dem, e-se'-dem, e'-a-dem, 

G. e-o-run'-dem, e-a-run'-dem, e-o-run'-dem, 

j. C e-is'-dein, or} C e-is'-dem, or > C e-is'-dem, or 

I i-is'-dem, ) \ i-is'-dem, ) ( i-is'-dem, 

Ac. e-os'-dem, e-as'-dem, e'-a-dem, 

V. 

a* C e-is'-dem, or~> C e-is'-dem, or ~> C e-is'-dem, or 

' \ i-is'-dem. ) c i-is'-dem. 3 \ i-is'-dem. 

Note. In compound pronouns, m before d is changed into n; &s,eunr 
dem, &c. 

INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 135. Intensive pronouns are such as serve to render 
an object emphatic. 

To this class belong ipse, and the intensive compounds 
already mentioned. §§ 1^3, 2, and 134, 4. 
Ipse is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

M. F. JY. M. F. JY. 



N. ip'-se, ip'-sa, ip'-sum, 
G. ip-si'-us, ip-si'-us, ip-si'-us, 
D. ip'-si, ip'-si, ip'-si, 
Ac. ip'-sum, ip'-sam, ip'-sum, 

V. 

Ab.'vp'-sQ. ip'-sa. ip'-so. 



ip'-si, ip'-sse, ip'-sa, 

ip-so'-rum, ip-sa'-rum, ip-so'-rum, 
ip'-sis, ip'-si s, ip'-sis, 
ip'-sos, ip'-sas, ip'-sa, 



ip'-sis. ip'-sis. ip'-sis. 



Remarks. 

1. Ipse is commonly subjoined to nouns or pronouns ; as, Jupiter ipse, 
tu ipse, Jupiter himself, &c. 

2. A nominative ipsus, and a superlative ipsisstmus, his very self, are 
found in comic writers. 

3. The compounds eapse, eampse, and reapse, are contracted for ed ipsd. 
earn ipsam, and re ipsd. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

<§> 136. Relative pronouns are such as relate to a pre- 
ceding noun, or pronoun. 

They are qui, who, and the compounds quicunque and quis- 
quis, whoever. 

In a general sense, the demonstrative pronouns are often relatives ; but 
the name is commonly appropriated to those above specified. They serve 



so 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 



$ 137. 



to introduce a proposition, limiting or explaining a preceding noun or pro- 
noun, to which they relate, and which is called the antecedent. 

Qui is thus declined : — 





Singular. 






Plural 






M. F. 


jsr. 


M 


F. 


JV. 


N. 


qui, quae, 


quod, 


qui, 


quag, 


quae, 


G. 


ca'-jus, cu'-jus, 


cu'-jus, 


quo'-rum, 


qua'-rum, 


quo'-rum, 


J). 


cui,* cui, 


cui, 


qui'-bus, 


qui'-bus, 


qui'-bus, 


Ac. 


quern, quam, 


quod, 


quos, 


quas, 


quas, 


V. 

Ab 












quo. qua. 


quo. 


qui'-bus. 


qui'-bus. 


qui'-bus. 



Remarks. 

1. Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular, in all genders, and 
rarely for the ablative plural. To the ablatives quo, qud, and qui, cum is 
sometimes annexed ; but it is usually placed before the ablative plural. 

2. Queis and quis are sometimes used in the dative and ablative plural 
for quibus. Cujus and cui were anciently written quojus and quoi. 

Quicunque, or quicumque, is declined like qui. 

Qui is sometimes separated from cunque, by the interposition of one or 
more words. 

Quisquis is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

M. . F. JV. M. 

JV. quis'-quis, quis'-quis, quid'-quid, JV. qui'-qui, 

Ac. quem'-quem, quid'-quid, D. qui-bus'-qui-bus. 

Ah. quo'-quo. qua'-qua. quo'-quo. 



Note. Quicquid is sometimes used for quidquid. 
occurs in Plautus. 



Quiqui for quisquis 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 137. Interrogative pronouns are such as serve to 
inquire which of a number of objects is intended. 

They are 



Quis ? 



i 



Quisnam ? ) 



who ? what ? Ecquis ? 

Eequisnam ? 

Jr u * ' 3 > which ? what ? Numquis ? 
Qumam ? 5 



is any one ? 



Cujus ? whose ? 

Cujas ? ojxchat 

country ? 



1. Quis is commonly used substantively ; qui, adjectively. 
Qui is declined like qui the relative. 



Pronounced Id. See § 9. 



137. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 



81 



Quis is thus declined : — 
Singular. 
M F „V. 

JY. quis, quae, quid, 
G. cu'-jus, cu'-jus, cu'-jus, 
D. cui, cui, cui, 

Ac. quem, quam, quid, 

V. 

Ah. quo. qua. quo. 



Plural. 
M. F. JST. 

qui, quae, quae, 

quo'-rum, qua-rum, quo'-rum, 
qui'-bus, qui'-bus, qui'-bus, 
quos, quas, qua?, 



qui'-bus. qui'-bus. qui'-bus. 



Remarks on quis and qui. 

(a.) Quis is sometimes used by comic writers in the feminine, and even 
in the neuter. So also quisnam , quis que and quisquam occur as feminine. 

(/;.) Qui is used for the ablative of quis, in all genders, as it is for 
that of the relative qui. 

(c.) Quis and qui have sometimes the signification of indefinite pronouns 
(some one, any one), especially after ec, si, ne, neu, nisi, num, quo, quanio, 
quum, and ubi. Sometimes they are used in the sense of qualis ? what sort ? 

2. The compounds quisnam and quinam have the signification 
and declension of quis and qui respectively. 

3. Ecquis and numquis, or nunquis, are declined and used 
like quis. 

But ecqua is sometimes found in the nominative singular feminine ; and 
the neuter plural of nunquis is nunqua. 

Ecqui and nunqui also occur, declined like the interrogative qui, and, 
like that, used adjectively. 

4. Ecquisnam is declined like ecquis ; but it is found only in 
the singular ; — in the nominative in all genders, and in the abla- 
tive masculine, 

5. Cujus is also defective: — 



M. 
JV. cu f -jus, 
Ac. cu'-jum, 
Ab. 



Singular. 

F. JV. 

cu'-ja, cu'-jum, 

cu'-jam, 

cu'-ja. 



Plural. 

F. 

JV. cu -joe, 
Ac. cu'-jas. 



6. Cujas is declined like an adjective of one termination ; 
cujas, cujatis. It is found in the genitive and accusative sin- 
gular, and the nominative plural. 

Note. The interrogative pronouns are sometimes used, in dependent 
clauses, when there is no question. They are then called indefinites ; as, 
nescio quis sit, I know not who he is. Qui, in this sense, is found for 
quis ; as, qui sit aperit, he discloses who he is. 



82 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. >> 138. 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

<§> 1 38. Indefinite pronouns are such as denote an ob- 
ject, in a general manner, without indicating a particular 
individual. They are 

Aliquis, some one. Quisquam, anyone. Quidam, a certain one. 

Siquis, if any. Quispiam, some one. Quilibet, ) any one you 

N equis, lest any. Unusquisque, each. Quivis, ) please. 

Quisque, every one. Aliquipiam, any, some. 

1. Aliquis is thus declined : — 

Singular, 

M. F. JV. 

JV. al'-i-quis, al'-i-qua, al'-i-quod, or quid, 

G. al-i-cu'-jus, al-i-cu'-jus, al-i-cu'-jus, 

D. al'-i-cui, al'-i-cui, al'-i-cui, 

Ac. al'-i-quem, al'-I-quam, al'-i-quod, or quid, 

V. 

Ah. al'-i-quo. al'-i-qua. al'-I-quo. 

Plural. 
M. F. JV. 

JV. al'-I-qui, al'-i-qus, al'-I-qua, 

G. al-i-quo'-rum, al-i-qua'-rum, al-i-quo'-rum, 

D. a-liq'-m-bus, * a-liq'-ui-bus, a-liq'-ui-bus, 

Ac. al'-i-quos, al'-I-quas, al'-i-qua, 



V. 



Ah. a-liq'-ui-bus. a-liq'-ui-bus. a-liq'-ui-bus. 

2. Siquis and nequis are declined in the same manner. 

But they sometimes have qua in the nominative singular feminine. 

Allqui, siqui, and nequi, are found for aliquis, &c, and the ablatives aliqui 
and siqui also occur. 

Allquid, siquid, and nequid, like quid, are used substantively; aliquod, 
&c, like quod, are used adjectively. 

3. Quisque, quisquam, and quispiam, are declined like quis. 
But in the neuter singular, quisque has quodque, quidque, or quicque ; 

quisquam has quidquam or quicquam ; and quispiam has quodpiam, quid- 
piam, or quippiam. 

Quisquam wants the plural, and quispiam is scarcely used in that num- 
ber, except in the nominative feminine, quaipiam. 

4. Unusquisque is compounded of unus and quisque, and both 
words are declined. 

Thus unusquisque, uniuscujusque, unicuique, unumquemque, &c. The 
neuter is unumquodque, or unumquidque. It has no plural. 

5. Quidam, quilibet, and quivis, are declined like qui, except 
that they have quod, or quid, in the neuter. 

Quidam has usually n before d in the accusative singular and genitivjB 
plural ; as, quendam, quorundam, &c. 

* Pronounced a-lik'-we-hus. See §§ 9, ana 19, 4. 



§ 139-141. verbs. 83 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 1 39. The possessive are derived from the substantive 
pronouns, and from quis, and designate something belong- 
ing to their primitives. 

They are mens, tuus, suits, noster, vester, and cujus. Mcus, 
tuus, and suus, are declined like bonus. (§ 105.) Meus has in 
the vocative singular masculine mi, and very rarely meus. 

Cujus is also declined like bonus ; but it is defective. See 
§ 137, 5. 

Noster and vester are declined like piger. See § 10G. 

Remarks. 

1. The termination pte intensive is sometimes annexed to the ablative 
singular of the possessive pronouns ; as, suoptc pondere, by its own weight ; 
suapte manu, by his own hand. 

2. Sims, like its primitive sui, has always a reflexive signification. These 
pronouns are hence called reflexive. Meus, tuus, noster, and vester, are also 
used reflexively, when the subject of the proposition is of the first or 
second person. See § 132. Metis sometimes annexed to meus, &c. 

PATRIAL PRONOUNS. 

These are nostras and cujas. See § 137, 6. They are de- 
clined like adjectives of one termination ; as, nostras, nostrdtis. 



VERBS. 

§ 140. A verb is a word by which something is af- 
firmed of a person or thing. 

That of which any thing is affirmed is called the subject 
of the verb. 

A verb either expresses an action or state ; as, puer legit, the 
boy reads ; virtus lauddtur, virtue is praised ; equus currit, the 
horse runs ; aqua calet, the water is warm ; — or it connects an 
attribute with a subject ; as, terra est rotunda, the earth is round. 

All verbs belong to the former of these classes, except sum, I am, the 
most common use of which is, to connect an attribute with a subject. 
When so used, it is called a copula. 

§141. Verbs are either active or neuter. 

I. An active verb expresses such an action as requires 
the addition of an object to complete the sense ; as, amo te } 
I love thee ; sequltur consulem, he follows the consul. 

Most active verbs may express action in two ways, and, for 



84 verbs. § 142. 

this purpose, have two forms, which are called the active and 
passive voices. 

1. A verb in the active voice represents the agent as acting 
upon some person or thing, called the object ; as, puer legit 
librum, the boy is reading a book. 

2. A verb in the passive voice represents the object as 
acted upon by the agent ; as, liber legitur a puero, a book is 
read by the boy. 

Remark. By comparing the two preceding examples, it will be seen 
that they have the same meaning. The passive voice may thus be sub- 
stituted at pleasure for the active, by making the object of the active the 
subject of the passive, and placing the subject of the active in the ablative 
case, with or without the preposition a or ub, according as it is a voluntary 
or involuntary agent. The active form is used to direct the attention 
especially to the agent as acting; the passive, chiefly to exhibit the object 
as acted upon. In the one case the object, in the other the agent, is fre- 
quently omitted, and left indefinite ; as, puer legit, the boy is reading, i. e. 
librum, litems, &c, a book, a letter, &c. ; virtus lauddtur, virtue is praised, 
i. e. ab hominlbus, by men. 

The two voices are distinguished from each other by peculiar 
terminations. 

<§> 142. II. A neuter verb expresses such an action or 
state, as does not require the addition of an object to com- 
plete the sense ; as, equus currit, the horse runs ; ego sedeo, 
I sit. 

Many verbs, in Latin, are considered as neuter, which are usually 
translated by an active verb in English. Thus indulgco, I indulge, noceo, 
I hurt, parco, I obey, are reckoned among neuter verbs. In strictness, 
such verbs denote rather a state than an action, and their sense would be more 
exactly expressed by the verb to be with an adjective ; as, " I am indul- 
gent, I am hurtful," &c. Some verbs in Latin, which do not usually take 
an object after them, are yet active, since the object is omitted b}- an ellip- 
sis. Thus credo properly signifies to intrust, and, in this sense, admits an 
object; as, credo tibi salutem meant, I intrust my safety to you; but it 
usually means to believe ; as, crede mihi, believe me. 

Remark 1. Neuter verbs have, in general, only the form of 
the active voice. They are, however, sometimes used imper- 
sonally in the passive voice. 

2. The neuter verbs audeo, I dare, fido, I trust, gaudeo, I rejoice, and 
solco, I am wont, have the passive form in the perfect and its cognate 
tenses ; as, ausus sum, I dared. These verbs are called neuter passives. 

3. The neuter verbs vapTdo, I am beaten, and veneo, I am sold, have an 
active form, but a passive meaning, and are called neutral passives. 

4. Some verbs, both active and neuter, have only the form 
of the passive voice. These are called deponent verbs, from de- 
pono, to lay aside, as having laid aside their active form, and 
their passive signification ; as, scquor, I follow ; morior, I die. 

Not*. Verbs are sometimes said to be transitive, and intransitive, rather 



§ 143, 144. VERBS. MOODS ; TENSES. 85 

than active or neuter ; and verbs of motion are by some divided into 
active-transitive and actirc-lntrajisitivc, according as they require, or do not 
require, an object after them. 

To verbs, besides voices, belong moods, tenses, numbers, 
and persons. 

MOODS. 

<§> 143. Moods are forms of the verb, denoting the 
manner of the action or state expressed by the verb. There 
are in Latin four moods — the indicative, the subjunctive, the 
imperative, and the infinitive. 

1. The indicative mood is that form of the verb which 
is used in independent and absolute assertions ; as, amo, I 
love ; amdbo, I shall love. 

2. The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb which 
is used to express an action or state simply as conceived 
by the mind ; as, si me obsecret, redlbo ; if he entreat me, 
I will return. 

3. The imperative mood is that form of the verb which 
is used in commanding, exhorting, or entreating; as, ama, 
love thou. 

4. The infinitive mood is that form of the verb which 
is used to denote an action or state indefinitely, without 
limiting it to any person or thing as its subject ; as, amdre, 
to love. 

TENSES. 

§ 144. Tenses are forms of the verb, denoting the 
times of the action or state expressed by the verb. 

1. Time admits of a threefold division, into present, past, and 
future ; and, in each of these times, an action may be repre- 
sented either as going on, or as completed. From these two 
divisions arise the six tenses of a Latin verb, each of which is 
distinguished by its peculiar terminations. 

2. They are called the present, imperfect, future, perfect, 
'pluperfect, and future perfect tenses. 

Present C action ^ amo, I love, or am loving ; Present tense. 
Fast < not com- > amdbam, I was loving; hnpe-fect tense. 
Future ( pleted; ) amabo, I shall love, or be loving ; Future tense. 

Present C action } amdvi, I have loved ; Perfect tense. 
Past < com- > amaccram, I had loved ; Pluperfect tense. 
Future ( pleted ; ) amavero, I shall have loved ; Future perfect tens* 

8 



86 VERBS. TENSES. § 145. 

3. There is the same number of tenses in the passive voice, 
in which actions not completed are represented by simple forms 
of the verb, and those which are completed by compound forms. 

lit C action ^ amor, I am loved ; Present tense. 
Past < not com- > amdbar, I was loved ; Imperfect tense. 
Future ( pleted; J amabor, I shall be loved ; Future tense. 

Present C action ^ amdtus sum, orfui, I have been loved ; Perfect tense. 
Past < com- > amdtus cram, orfuerum, I had been loved ; Pluperfect. 
Future { pleted ; ) amdtus ero, or fuero, I shall have been loved ; Future 

[Perfect. 

§ 145. I. The present tense represents an action as 
now going on, and not completed ; as, ctrno, I love, or am 
loving. 

1. Any existing custom, or general truth, may be expressed by this 
tense ; as, apud Partitas, signum datur tympdno ; among the Parthians, 
the signal is given by a drum. A general truth is sometimes also ex- 
pressed by the perfect. 

2. The present tense may also denote an action which has existed for 
BOme time, and which still exists; as, totannosbella gcro ; for so many 
years 1 have waged, and am still waging war. 

3. The present tense is often in narration used for the perfect. It is 
then called the historical present; as, desiliunt ex equis, provolant in prU 
mum ; they dismount, they fly forward to the front. 

II. The imperfect tense represents an action as going on 
at some past time, but not then completed ; as, amabam, 
I was loving. 

1. The imperfect sometimes denotes repeated or customary 
past action ; as, legebam, I was wont to read. 

2. It may also denote an action which had existed for some time, and 
which was still existing at a certain past time ; as, auditbat jamdudum 
verba ; he had long heard, and was still hearing the words. 

3. This tense is sometimes used for the present, in letters, with refer- 
ence to the time of their being read; as, expect dbam, I was expecting, 
(when I wrote). 

4. The imperfect also sometimes denotes the intending, preparing, or 
attempting to act at a definite past time. 

III. The future tense denotes that an action will be going 
on hereafter, without reference to its completion; a?7iabo, 
I shall love or be loving. 

IV. The perfect tense represents an action either as just 
completed, or as completed in some indefinite past time ■; 

mdvi, 1 have loved, or I loved. 
In the former sense, it is called the perfect definite; in the 
hitter, it is called the historical perfect or perfect indefinite. 



^ 146, M7. VERBS. NUMRERS ; PERSONS. 87 

V. The pluperfect tense represents a past action as com- 
pleted, at or before the time of some other past action or 
event ; as, litteras scripseram, antequam mtneius venit ; / 

had written the letter, before the messenger arrived. 

VI. The future perfect tense denotes that an action will 
be completed, at or before the time of some other future 
action or event ; as, cum cocnavero, proficiscctr ; when I shall 
have supped, I will go. 

This tense is often, but improperly, called the future suhjunclive. It has 
the signification of the indicative mood, and corresponds to the second fu- 
ture in English. 

Note. The present, imperfect, and future tenses passive, in English, 
do not express the exact sense of those tenses in Latin, as denoting an ac- 
tion which is, was, or will be, going on at a certain time. Thus laudur 
signifies, not " I am praised," but " I am in the act of being praised," or, 
if such an expression is admissible, " I am being praised." 

Remark 1. The six tenses above enumerated are found only 
in the indicative mood. 

2. The subjunctive mood has the present and past, but no 
future tenses. 

The tenses of the subjunctive mood have less definiteness of meaning, 
in regard to time, than those of the indicative. Thus the present and per- 
fect, besides their common signs, maij or can, may have or can have, must, 
in certain connections, be translated by might, could, would, or should ; 
might hare, could have, &c. The tenses of this mood must often, also, be 
translated by the corresponding tenses of the indicative. For a more full 
account of the signification of the tenses of the subjunctive mood, 
see § 260. 

3. The imperative mood has but one tense, which is called 
the present, but which, from its nature, has a reference to the 
future. 

4. The infinitive mood has three tenses — the present, perfect, 
and future ; the first of which denotes an incomplete,the second 
a completed action, and the last an action to be performed. 

NUMBERS. 

§ 146. Numbers are forms of the verb, denoting the 
unity or plurality of its subject. Verbs, like nouns, have 
two numbers — the singular and the plural. 

PERSONS. 

<§> 147. Persons are forms of the verb, appropriated to 
the different persons of the subject, and accordingly called 
the first, second, and third persons. 



88 VERBS. PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES. 

1 . As the imperative mood expresses the action which a second 
or third person is required to perform, it has terminations cor- 
responding to those persons only. 

'J. The signification of the infinitive mood not being limited to 
any subject, it admits no change to express either number or 
person. 

3, The following are the terminations of the different persons 
of each number, in the indicative and subjunctive moods in both 
voices : — 



Active. 




Passive. 




Person. 1. 2. 


3. 


1. 2. 


3. 


Singular. — s, 


t; 


r, ris, 


tur ; 


Plural, mus, tis, 


nt. 


mur, mini, 


ntur. 



These may be called personal terminations. 

Remark 1. The first person singular, in the active voice, ends either in 
m or in a vowel. 

2. The perfect indicative active is irregular in the second person singu- 
lar, and in one of the forms of the third person plural. 

'3. The passive form above given applies to the simple tenses only. 

4. The pronouns of the first and second persons are seldom expressed 
in Latin as subjects of a finite verb, the several persons being sufficiently 
distinguished by the terminations of the verb. 



PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES. 

<§> 148. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, 
and partaking of its meaning, but having the form of an 
adjective. 

Like a verb, it has different voices and tenses ; like an adjec- 
tive, it has declension* and gender; and like both, it has two 
numbers. 

Active verbs have usually four participles — two in the active 
voice, a present and a future; as, amans, loving; amaturus, about 
to love ; — and two in the passive voice, a perfect and a future ; 
as, amdtus, loved, or having been loved ; amandus, to be loved. 

Neuter verbs have usually only the participles of the active 
voice. 

Deponent verbs, both active and neuter, may have the partici- 
ples of both voices. 

2. Gerunds are verbal nouns, used only in the oblique cases, 
and expressing the action or state of the verb. Like other ab- 

* See $\W 05 and 111. 



^ 1 19, 150. FERBS. CONJUGATION-. 89 

stract nouns, they are found only in the singular number; as, 
ttmandi, of loving, &,c. 

3. Supines also are verbal nouns of the fourth declension in 
the accusative and ablative singular ; as, amdtum, to love ; amdtu, 
to be loved. The supine in urn is called the former supine ; that 
in //, the hitter. The former is commonly used in an active, the 
latter in a passive sense. 



CONJUGATION. 

■§> 149. The conjugation of a verb is the regular forma- 
tion and arrangement of its several parts, according to their 
voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

'There are four conjugations, which are characterized by 
the vowel before re in the present of the infinitive active. 
In the first conjugation, it is a long ; 

In the second, e long ; 

In the third, e short; 

In the fourth, i long. 

Note. Do, dare, to give, and such of its compounds as are of the first 
conjugation, have a short before re. 

<§> 150. A verb consists of two parts — the rout, and the 
verbal termination. 

1. The root of a verb consists of those letters which are not 
changed by inflection ; as, am in amo, zmdbam, sunaverim, 
Rmdtus. This may be called the general root. 

2. There are three special roots, from which, by the ad- 
dition of certain terminations, all the parts of the verb are 
readily formed. The first of these roots is found in the present 
of the indicative, and is the same as the general root ; the sec- 
ond is found in the perfect ; and the third in the supine, or per- 
fect participle. 

3. In regular verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjuga- 
tions, the second root is formed by adding, respectively, dv, ev, 
and iv, to the general root ; and the third root by a similar ad- 
dition of at, et, and it. 

Many verbs, however, in these three conjugations, form their 
second and third roots irregularly, as do almost all in the sec- 
ond, a great part adding u and it, instead of ev and et. 

4. In the third conjugation, the second root either is the 
same as the first, or is formed from it by adding s ; the third 
root is formed by adding t. See § 171. 

8* 



90 vr.UBS. CONJUGATION. § 1-51, 152. 

.Nun-.. In the second and fourth conjugations, e and i before o are 
considered as belonging not to the root, but to the termination. In verbs 
whose second or third roots are formed irregularly, the general root often 
undergoes some change in the parts derived from them. 

">. The vowel which unites the general root with the remain- 
ing letters of the verb, is called the connecting vowel. Each 
conjugation, except the third, is, in a great degree, distinguished 
by a peculiar connecting vowel, which is the same as character- 
izes the infinitives. See § 149. 

In the third conjugation, the connecting vowel is generally e or i. In 
tin 1 second and fourth conjugations, and in verbs in io of the third, a sec- 
ond connecting vowel is sometimes added to that wliich characterizes the 
conjugation ; as, a in doceant, u in capiunt, &c. 

In verbs whose second and third roots are formed irregularly, the con- 
necting vowel often disappears, or is changed in the parts derived from 
those roots ; but it is almost alwa} r s found in the parts derived from the 
first root. 

<§> 151. 1. From the first root are derived, in each voice, 
the present, imperfect, and future indicative ; the present and 
imperfect subjunctive, the imperative, and the present infinitive. 
From this root are derived also the present participle, the gerund, 
and the future participle passive. 

2. From the second root are derived, in the active voice, the 
perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative; the perfect 
and pluperfect subjunctive, and the perfect infinitive. 

3. From the tliircl root are derived, in the active voice, the 
supine mum, and the future participle, the latter of which, with 
the verb esse, constitutes the future infinitive. 

From this root are derived, in the passive voice, the supine in 
v, and the perfect participle, from the latter of which, with the 
verb sum, are formed all the tenses which in the active are de- 
rived from the second root. The future infinitive passive is 
formed from the supine in urn, and in', the present infinitive 
plosive of the verb co, to go. 

4. The present and perfect indicative, the supine in tim* and 
the present infinitive, are called the principal parts of the verb, 
because from the first three the several roots are ascertained, 
and from the last, the characteristic vowel of the conjugation. 
In the passive voice, the principal parts are the present indica- 
tive and infinitive, and the perfect participle. 

§ 1 5 2. The following table exhibits a connected view of the 
verbal terminations, in all the conjugations. By annexing these 
to the several roots, all the parts of a verb may be formed. 

* As tho supine in um is wanting in most verbs, the third root must often be deter- 
mined from the perfect participle, or the future participle active. 



§ L52. 



VERBS. TERMINATIONS. 



91 



il^l 



oi o» o .2 











< 


S ■g-g.g'.g 

! Ti 1 s i -a 

i) (3 O.-.h 




|||| 




llll 






S 1 'S| 

a 3 g 3 










& 




~3 "0 03 • — 




■**??•? 






on «•« 










r^ 




' ' ' m. 




1 
















Pn 




















• 

o 

i— i 

o 








a s = d a 
S 5 g a 
cj «u ,t: iS 




t-, «- >- 2 

3 3 3 3 

cd oi cu .S5 




3 2 h Sj 

s a § 1 

^ J2 3 ,j. 

« cu '<u .^ 






C 3 C 3 

333s 

3 d 3 5 
Hj O <d •-* 














.„ 


























•* *•* • *~ «-< 












■v* 


H 








••« »•» .-. . ^ 




3333 




3 33 ; »- 






IS 0) -cd .'S 




Sa- 
- 
to 
OR 








• a s * * 




*j ■•-> +j .«j 
icd icd icd -2 

cd 0) O • •=« 
iii 1 




Cd 03 '03.2 






5 


< 






d 

< 


cT aT aT oT 

u, i_ m g 

2 ' * ■ ' 

£• k k K !> 




oT oT aT S 

rt 3 3 : % 

Cd <U 03 .3. 




aT oT 

303 >C3 <vT ?J 
-33 -33 I- ,3 
Cd 03 '03 .S 






^ oT ~ a~ 
^ ,S 2i M 

103 03 cd .-h 








« 




*» t» ~ !- 




*- K fc: i 


Q 




5- *~ h h 








p 




(9 


I^OOOO 




0000 




9 







V 




c 











.2.2.2-S 




w w 





, 




"^ 




93 

■ 

d 

93 


g 


.2 .2 .22 09 




m icd 'rt Ja 
J -Q ^= ^3 
«? ? V • 




)i> >cj 2 "2 


s 


0) 
U3 


2 ™ m 

,3'CS'a 


© 




r5 


■ 


icd iO) XU 1— 


u 




^3> -a "«-. ,S 

Cd 03 i03 .-j< 


H 


a 

03 


103 03 iCd .-h 






E3 


H 






<8 


r 


O 




> 


H 




^3 




> 

eh 


d 
u 
m 

93 

U 




• «-. O u g 

r-t <u .2 


s 

p. 
2 

M 


£ *-T ^r J5 

cd cd cd -1 

^3 ^5 x: -£3 
icd «U "03 — - 


— 

d 
d 


icd io) ed .S 




a 

93 


^ ^ b" 3 
a) 03 cd .2 




< 
g 




rH^i CO-<tf 


^sici** 


a 


rH 3^ CO r|5 




OR 

M 


A w co Tf 




E 


Ph 
















c- 














=0 




s 










1 SS rf 

cd cd ri j^ 

,2 ^3 -C "J 

irt .<a 103 .S 




C 3 .j 


D 

M 




^ . 












"Isli 






iCd '03 03 .in 






a cd a p 
0) 03 cd .5 


























J^-> 


a 






- 

d 


2 ~ ~ - ~ 

. tn 93 M w 

co ^} '-2 '-S vS "^3 

|> rt •« >« 1- 




^ ~ ^ 73 

m CO ryj ._. 

>cd «d «d 

^= ^33 J3 % 

V T V 1 




aT 73 ^ 

-33 -3! - 3 ^3 
Cd 03 '03 .~ 






- 2f r » 

73 •,£ to -^3 

'J icd '-3 ipj 

10 O d.- 


h 


o 






^ 


^ 
























oT 73 7]"* oT 

. : 3 3 d 
3 '5 >- i« 




tT «T aT 2 

S = 3 3 

s 1 1 1 




II si 

33 El 

Cd 03 '03 .S 






•^ to ~. OT 

a 33 a 2 

s 3 . a ,3 

icd icd .— 




H 


























< 






< 


CO rt o> • y • v 




"cd "id "ri _^ 

-33 J3 J ^3 

M eu icd.^h 

oT 73" oT 2 




-2 -- *-» 3J 






O) 0) cd .5 












3 ~ ~ .. ,» 

3? —C 71 OT rr, r»> 

gj ; O* cd oi .2 .2 






icd .0) 03 .S< 














V- 


^hoSo.2 




ed rf cd j§ 
^3. ,33 J33 % 
•Cd -CD .03 .3 




'-S'-S 73" g 

icd .03 0) -S 






oi cd t» jj 
03 03 Cd .3 










x 


















,-3 O) 3C ■-* 

'uoifvS 




3355 

icd io> -oj .v3 




o" rT a 
13 "icD 3 .S 






a 1 f 1 

03 0) 3d "^ 












-nfuoQ 




a oi ^i -d" 




rH jj CO "<* 






r-?(N CO Tj» 



92 



VERBS. TERMINATIONS. 



§ 152. 



S 2 3 3 

3 3 5 "3 

e a 2 s 

d o o.t! 

'S H '3 'a* 
g gj r 5 
K 2 S S 

d o u.i3 

*r u c .• 

3 3 3b 

= 5 5 3 
B 2 2 § 

h LT IT :■ * 

3 3 3 ^ 

■O -O iO Jgj 


. O 

w" of oT 2 ~ 

3 3 3 = a 

L U U »J I'S' d = 

oofe| Sggjf 
3 3 3 g • • ' . 

? ¥ ?•? ~ei:*<« | 

.- .-r - «> & ^ » 

£ ,5 3 3 *c? 5 

rt 0) .3.3 ^ a, 
p 

2 2 £ S.-r',S § 

«s ><u ,t; s ' ' ' ' ° 


t-fl -~ rt .2 .2 s; kJ 
§ ^^^ ^ '3 J 

o§ 000 ^^^ 

^ g h ' ' ' ' • S - 

^1 g fell Il^g 

*ZT rt >. ^ « «> CCCh 


2* 2* 2** • 

2 2 2 •« 

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9 l.">3. VERBS. SUM. 93 

In analyzing a verb, tlio voice, person, and number, are ascertained by the 
mgrsonal terminations. See § 147, 3. The conjugation, mood, and tense, 
are, in general, determined by the letter or letters which intervene between 
thr root of the verb and those terminations. Tims in amabimus, mus de- 
notes that the verb is of the active voice, plural number, and first person ; 
bu denotes that it is of the indicative mood, imperfect tense; and the con- 
necting vowel a determines it to be of the first conjugation. So in ama- 
rrmi/ii, mini denotes the passive voice, plural number, and second person ; 
rr, the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense ; and «, as before, the first conju- 
gation. 

Sometimes, the part between the root of the verb and the personal ter- 
mination, does not precisely determine the conjugation, mood, and tense, 
but only within certain limits. In such cases, the conjugation may be 
learned, by finding the present tense in the dictionary, and if two forms 
are alike in the same conjugation, they can only be distinguished by the 
sense. Thus am&mus and docSmiis have the same termination ; but, as 
amo is of the first, and doceo of the second conjugation, the former is de- 
termined to be the subjunctive, tbe latter the indicative, present, Regar 
may be either future indicative, or present subjunctive— Icglmus either 
present or perfect indicative. 

*§> 153. Sum, I am, is called an auxiliary verb, because it 
is used, in conjunction with participles, to supply the want of 
simple forms in other verbs. From its denoting existence, it 
is sometimes called the substantive verb. It is very irregular 
in those parts which, in other verbs, are formed from the first 
root. Its imperfect and future tenses seem to have been 
formed from the second root of some now obsolete verb, and 
to have been, not, as now, an imperfect and future, but a plu- 
perfect and future perfect. It is thus conjugated : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Injin. Per/. Indie. Fut. Part. 
Sum, es'-se, fu'-i, fu-tu'-rus. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

R C 1. sum, / am, su'-mus, we are, 

£ < 2. es, thou art* es'-tis, ye\ are, 

t£ C 3. est, he is ; sunt, they are. 

Imperfect. 

1 . e'-ram, J was, e-ra'-mus, we were, 

2. e'-ras, thou wast, e-ra'-tis, ye were, 

3. e'-rat, he was ; e'-rant, they were. 

Mn the second person singular in English, the plural form you is commonly used, 
except in solemn discourse ; as, tu es, you are. 

t The plural pronoun of the second person is either ye or you. 



9 I VERBS. SUM. 4» 153. 



Future, shall, or will, 

1. r'-ro, / shall be, cr'-I-nius, we shall be, 

2. c -r,s, thou will be, er'-i-tis, ye will be, 

-rit, he mil be ; e'-runt, they will be. 

Perfect, have been, or was. 

1. fn'-i, [have been, fu'-I-mus, wc have been, 

2. fu-is'-ti, thou hast been, fu-is'-tis, ye have been, 

3. iu'-it, he has been ; fil-e'-runt or -re, they have been. 

Pluperfect. 

1. fu'-g-ram, I had been, fu-e-ra'-inus, we had been, 

2. ln'-c-ras, thou hailst been, fu-c-ra'-tis, ye had been, 

3. fu'-e-rat, he had been; fu'-e-rant, they had been. 

Future Perfect, shall or will have. 

1. fu'-e-ro, I shall have been, fu-erM-mu.s, ice shall have been. 

2. fu'-£-ris, thou wilt have been, iu-er / -i-tis, ye will have been, 

3. fu'-e-rit, he will have been ; fu'-e-rint, they ivill have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present, may, or can, 

1. sim, I may be, si'-mus, ice may be, 

2. sis, thou maust It, si'-tis, ye may be, 

3. sit, he may bt ; sint, they may be. 

Imperfect, might, could, ivould, or should. 

1. es'-sem, I ivould be, es-se'-mus, we would be, 

2. es'-ses, thou wouldst be, es-se'-tis, ye would be, 

3. cs' -set, he would be; cs' -sent, they would be. 

Perfect. 

1. fu'-iVrim, I may have been, fu-er'-i-mu?, we may have been, 

2. fu'-f'-ris, thou maust have been, fu-er'-i-tis, ye may have been, 

3. fii'-fi-rit, he may have been ; fu'-r-rint, they may have been. 

Pluperfect, might, could, ivould, or should have. 

1. ru-is'-sem, / would have been, fu-is-se'-mus, we would have been, 

2. l'ii-is'-s«\-\ thou wouldst have t-<<<n, fu-is-se'-tis, ye would have been, 

3. fu-is'-set, hi would have been ; fu-is'-sent, they would have been. 



151. VERBS. SUM. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

2. es, or es'-to, be thou, es'-to, or es-to'-te, be yt, 

& es'-to, let him be; sun'-to, lei than be. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, es'-se, to be. 

Perfect, fu-is'-se, to have bent. 

Future, fu-tiV-rus es'-se, to be about to be. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Future, fu-tu'-rus, about to be. 

Remarks. 

y lo4. 1. A present participle ens seems to have been anciently 
used, and is now found in the compounds abscjis, prccsc?i.s, and potens. 

2. The perfect/?«, and its derivative tenses, are formed from an obsolete 
fuo, whence come also the participle futurus, and an old subjunctive 
present fua in, fuas,fuat ; , ,fuant. 

3. Yxomfuo are also derived the following : — 

Subj. impcrf. fo'-rem, fo'-res, fo'-ret; , , fo'-rent. 

Jnf.pres. fo'-re. 

These forms seem to have been contracted from fucrrm, 
&,c, a.nd fuere. For em is equivalent in meaning to essem, but 
fore has, in most cases, acquired a future signification, equiva- 
lent to futurus esse. 

4. Sicm, sirs, sict, for sim, sis, sit, are found in ancient writers, as are 
also escit for erit, escunt for erunt, and fuv&rint foifuirint. 

5. Like sum are conjugated its compounds, except possum ; 
but prosum has d after pro, when the simple verb begins with 
e; as, 

Ind.pres. pro'-sum, prod'-es, prod'-est, &c. 
impcrf. prod'-e-ram, prod'-e-ras, &c. 

6. Possum is compounded of potts, able, and sum. They 
are sometimes written separately, and then potis is the same in 
all genders and numbers. In composition, is is omitted in 
potis, and t, as in other cases, coming before s, is changed into 
s. In the infinitive, and imperfect subjunctive, rs of the simple 
verb is dropped, and f at the beginning of the second root. 
In every other respect, possum is conjugated like sum, wher- 
ever it is found; but the imperative, and parts derived from the 
third root, are wanting. 






YI;KI5S. FIRST CONJUGATION, active. ^ 155.| 



I'ris. I nd. 



Pre*. Inf. 
pos'-se, 



Pcrf. lad. 
pot'-U-i, 



[NDICATIVE. 



r> i S. Jims -sum, pot'-es, pot'-L'st, 
^ /'. jios'- 



-su-iiiiis. pot-es'-tlB, pos'-SUIlt. 
\<n\n rj. pol -« -rani, &C. 

tut. pot'-S-ro, &c. 

pot'-a-i, vV '•. 
7 7 »/// . pot-u'-S-ram, Arc 

/■";//. /"•//. put-u'-6-ro, &C. 



I can, or Jam able. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Prcs. pos'-sim, &c. 



lmjicrf. pos'-sem, &c. 
Perf. pot-u'-e-rim, &c. 
PLup. pot-u-is'-sem, &c. 

INFINITIVE. 
Pros, pos'-se. 
Perf. pot-u-is'-se. 

The following forms are also found ;—potessim and possicm, &c, for 
OMt'm, A-c. ; potesse for posse; potestur for potest ; and possltur for possit. 



$155. FIRST CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS . 



Pre*. I nd. 
A'-mo, 



Pres. Inf. 
a-ma'-re, 



Perf. Lid. 
a-ma'-vi, 



Supine. 
a-ma'-tum. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 



Sing. 


a'-mo, 




/ love, 




a'-mas, 




thou fattest, 




a -mat, 




he loves ; 


Plur. 


a-ma -mus, 




ice love, 




a-ma'-tis, 




ye love, 




a'-mant, 




they love- 




Imperfect. 




Sing. 


a-ma'-bam, 




I was loving, 




a-ma'-bas, 




thou wast loving, 




a-ma'-bat, 




lu was loving; 


Plur 


am-a-ba -mus, 




we were loving, 




am-a-ba'-tis, 




ye were loving, 




a-ma -bant, 




thuj were loving. 




Future. 


shall, or 


will 


Sing. 


a-ma -lio, 




I shall love, 




a-ma -biS| 




thou wilt love, 




a-ma -bit, 




he will love ; 


Plur. 


a-mab'-I-mus, 




we shall love, 




a-mal) -I-tis, 




ye will love, 




a-ma -bunt, 




tiny will loot. 



$ 155. VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE. 



97 



Ferfect. loved, or have loved. 

I have loved, 



Plur. 



a-ma-vi, 

am-a-vis'-ti, 

a-ma'-vit, 

a-mav'-i-mus, 

am-a-vis'-tis, 

am-a-ve'-runt or -re, 



thou hast luvcd, 
he has hired ; 
we have loved, 
ye have loved, 
they have loved. 



Pluperfect. 



Sing, a-mav'-e-ram, 



Plur. 



a-mav'-e-ras, 

a-mav'-e-rat, 

am-a-ve-ra'-mus, 

am-a-ve-ra'-tis, 

a-mav'-e-rant, 



Future Perfect. 



Sim 



Plur. 



a-mav'-e-ro, 

a-mav'-e-ris, 

a-mav'-e-rit, 

am-a-ver'-i-mus, 

am-a-ver'-i-tis, 

a-mav-e-rint, 



/ had loved, 
thou hadst loved, 
he had loved; 
we had loved, 
ye had loved, 
they had loved. 

shall or will have. 

I shall have loved, 
thou wilt have loved, 
he ivill have loved; 
we shall have loved, 
ye will, have loved, 
they will have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 





Present. 


may, 


or can. 


Sing. 


a'-mem, 




I may love, 




a'-mes, 




thou mayst love, 




a'-met, 




he may love ; 


Plur. 


a-me'-mus, 




we may love, 




a-me'-tis, 




ye may love, 




a'-ment, 




they may love. 


Imp 


?rfect. might, 


could, 


would, or should. 


Sing. 


a-ma'-rem, 




I would love, 




a-ma'-res, 




thou zvouldst love, 




a-ma'-ret, 




he woidd love ; 


Plur. 


ain-a-re'-mus, 




we would love, 




am-a-re'-tis, 




ye would love, 




a-ma'-rent, 
9 




they would love. 



98 VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE. § 155. ) 

Perfect. 



Sing, a-mav'-e-rim, 
a-mav'-e-ris, 
a-mav'-e-rit, 

Plur. am-a-ver'-I-mus, 
am-a-ver'-i-tis, 
a-mav'-e-rint, 


I may have loved, 
thou mayst have loved, 
he may have loved; 
we may have loved, 
ye may have loved, 
they may have loved. 


Pluperfect, might, could, 


would, or should have. 


Sing, am-a-vis'-sem, 
am-a-vis'-ses, 
am-a-vis'-set, 

Plur. am-a-vis-se'-mus, 
am-a-vis-se'-tis, 
am-a-vis'-sent, 


I would have loved, 
thou wouldst have loved, 
he would have loved ; 
we would have loved, 
ye icould have loved, 
they icoidd have loved. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Siiig. a'-ma, or a-ma'-to, 


love thou, 



a-ma'-to, let him love • 

Plur, a-ma'-te, or am-a-to'-te, love ye, 

a-man'-to, let them love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, a-ma'-re, to love. 

Perfect, am-a-vis'-se, to have loved. 

Future, am-a-tu'-rus es'-se, to be about to love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, a'-mans, loving. 

Future, am-a-tu'-rus, about to love. 

GERUND. 

G. a-man'-di, of loving, 

D. a-man'-do, to or for loving? 

Ac. a-man'-dum, loving, 

Ah. a-man'-do, by loving. 

SUPINE. 
Former, a-ma'-tum, to love. 



^ 156. VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE. 



99 



§156. 



PASSIVE VOICE 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Indie. Prcs. Iiifin. Pcrf. Part. 
A'-mor, a-ma'-ri, a-ma'-tus. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Sim 



Plur. 



Sin, 



a'-mor, 

a-ma'-ris or 

a-mfi'-tur, 

a-ma'-mur, 

a-mam'-i-ni, 

a-man'-tur, 



■re, 



Imperfect. 



a-ma'-bar, 

am-a-ba'-ris or -re, 

am-a-ba'-tur, 

am-a-ba'-mur, 

am-a-bam'-i-ni, 

am-a-ban'-tur, 



I am loved, 
thou art loved, 
he is loved ; 
we are loved, 
ye are loved, 
they are loved. 



I id as loved, 
thou wast loved, 
he was loved; 
we were loved, 
ye were loved, 
they were loved. 



Future, shall or will be. 



a-ma'-bor, 
a-mab'-e-ris or -re, 
a-mab'-i-tur, 
Plur. a-mab'-T-mur, 
am-a-bim'-i-ni, 
am-a-bun'-tur, 



/ shall be loved, 
thou wilt be loved, 
he will be loved; 
we shall be loved, 
ye will be loved, 
they will be loved. 



Perfect, have been, or 

Sing, a-ma'-tus sum or fu'-i, 

a-ma'-tus es or fu-is'-ti, 

a-ma'-tus est ur fu'-it, 
Plur. a-ma'-ti su'-mus or fu'-T-mus, 

a-ma'-ti es'-tis or fu-is'-tiSj 

a-ma'-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re, 



was. 

I have been loved, 
thou hast been loved, 
he has been loved ; 
we have been loved, 
ye have been loved, 
they have been loved. 



100 VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE. {> 156. 

Pluperfect. 

S. a-ma'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, / had been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, thou hadst been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat, he had been loved; 

P. a-ma'-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra'-mus, ice had been loved, 

a-ma'-ti e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, ye had been loved, 

a-ma'-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant, they had been loved. 

Future Perfect, shall have been. 

S. a-ma'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, I shall have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-ris or fu'-e-ris, thou wilt have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-rit or fu'-e-rit, he will have been loved ; 

P. a-ma'-ti er'-I-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, ice shall have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti er'-T-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, ye will have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti e'-runt or fu'-e-rint, they will have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present, may or can be. 

Sing, a'-mer, J may be loved, 

a-me'-ris or -re, thou mayst be loved, 

a-me'-tur, he may be loved ; 

Plur. a-me'-mur, we may be loved, 

a-mem -i-ni, ye may be loved, 

a-men'-tur, they may be loved. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be. 

Sing, a-ma'-rer, I would be loved, 

am-a-re'-ris or -re, thou woiddst be loved, 

am-a-re'-tur, he would be loved; 

Plur. am-a-re'-mur, we would be loved, 

am-a-rem'-T-ni, ye would be loved, 

am-a-ren'-tur, they would be loved. 

Perfect. 

S. a-ma'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, I may have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, thou mayst have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus sit or fu'-e-rit, he may have been loved ; 

P. a-ma'-ti si'-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, we may have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti si'-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, ye may have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti sint or fu'-e-rint, they may have been loved. 



<$> 156. 



VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE. 



101 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been. 



S. a-ma'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
a-ma'-tus es'-scs or fu-is'-ses, 
a-ma'-tus es'-set or fu-is'-set, 

P. a-ma'-ti es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-mus, 
a-ma'-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
a-ma'-ti es'-sent or fu-is'-sent. 



/ would have 
thou wouldst have 
he ivould have 
toe would have 
ye would have 
they would have „ 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Sing, a-ma'-re, or a-ma'-tor, 

a-ma'-tor, 
Plur. a-mam'-I-ni, 

a-man'-tor, 



be thou loved, 
let him be loved ; 
be ye loved, 
let them be loved. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present, a-ma'-ri, 

Perfect, a-ma'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se, 

Future, a-ma'-tum i'-ri, 



to be loved. 

to have been loved. 

to be about to be loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Perfect, a-ma'-tus, 
Future, a-man'-dus. 



loved, or having been loved, 
to be loved. 



SUPINE. 
Latter, a-ma'-tu, 



to be loved. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, am, are 
derived 



lnd. pres. 

imperf. 

- fid. 
Subj. pres. 

imperf. 

Imperat. 
Inf. pres. 
fart. pres. 

fid. 

Gerund. 



Active. 


Passive. 


amo, 


amor, 


amdbam, 


anvlbar, 


amdbo, 


amdbor, 


amem, 


amer, 


amdrem, 


amdrer, 


amu, 


amdre, 


amdre, 


amdri, 


amans, 






amandus. 



ama7idi. 



From the second root, 
amav, are derived 

Active. 
Ind. perf amfivi, 

plup. amaveram, 

— — fut. perf. amavero, 
Subj. perf. amavenm, 

plup. amavissem, 

Inf. perf. amavisse, 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. amaturus esse, 
Part. fut. amdAurus, 
— - perf 

Form. Sup. amatttm. 



From the third 
root, amat, are 
derived 
Passive. 
amatus sum, &e. 
amatus eram, &.c. 
amatus ero, &c. 
amatus sim, &c. 
amatus essem, &c. 
amatus esse, &c. 

amatum iri, 

amatus, 

Lat. Sup. aniata. 



102 



VERBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



§ 157. 



§ 157. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Ind. Mo'-ne-o, 

Pres. Inf. mo-ne'-re, 

Perf. Ind. mon'-u-i, 

Supine. mon'-T-tum. 



Pres. Ind. mo'-ne-or, 
Pres. Inf. mo-ne'-ri, 
Perf. Part, mon'-i-tus. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



I advise. 

St/ig. mo'-ne-o, 
mo'-nes, 
mo -net ; 

Plur. mo-ne'-mus, 
mo-ne'-tis, 
mo'-nent. 



Present. 



lam advised. 

Sing, mo'-ne-or, 

mo-ne'-ris or -re, 
mo-ne'-tur ; 

Plur. mo-ne'-mur, 
mo-nem'-i-ni, 
mo-nen'-tur. 



1 was advising. 

S. mo-ne'-bam, 
mo-ne'-bas, 
mo-ne'-bat ; 

P. mon-e-ba'-mus, 
mon-e-ba'-tis, 
mo-ne'-bant. 

I shall or ivill advise. 

S. mo-ne'-bo, 

mo-ne'-bis, 

mo-ne'-bit; 
P. mo-neb'-i-mus, 

mo-neb'-i-tis, 

mo-ne'-bunt. 



Imperfect. 



/ was advised. 

S. mo-ne'-bar, 

mon-e-ba/-ris or -re, 
mon-e-ba'-tur ; 

P. mon-e-ba'-mur, 
mon-e-bam'-i-ni, 
mon-e-ban'-tur. 



Future. 



I shall ox will be advised. 



S. mo-ne'-bor, 
mo-neb'-e-ris or 
mo-neb'-i-tur ; 

P. mo-neb'-I-mur, 
mon-e-bim'-I-ni, 
mon-e-bun'-tur 



•re. 



$ 157. 



VERBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



103 



ACTIVE. 



PASSIVE. 



Perfect. 



I advised, or have advised. 
S. mon'-u-i, 
mon-u-is'-ti, 
mon'-u-it ; 
P. mo-nu'-i-mus, 
mon-u-is'-tis, 
mon-u-e'-runt or -re. 



1 was or have been advised. 

S. mon'-i-tus sum or fu'-i, 
mon'-i-tus es or fu-is'-ti, 
mon'-i-tus est or fu'-it ; 

P. mon'-i-ti su'-mus or fu'-i-mus, 
mon'-i-ti es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
mon'-i-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 



I had advised. 

S. mo-nu'-e-ram, 
mo-nu'-e-ras, 
mo-nu'-e-rat ; 

P. mon-u-e-ra/-mus, 
mon-u-e-ra'-tis, 
monu'-e-rant. 



Pluperfect. 

I had been advised. 

S. mon'-i-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
mon'-i-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, 
mon'-i-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat ; 

P. mon'-i-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra'-mus, 
mon'-i-ti e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, 
mon'-i-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant. 



Future Perfect. 



I shall have advised. 

S. mo-nu'-e-ro, 
mo-nu'-e-ris, 
mo-nu'-e-rit ; 

P. mon-u-er'-i-mus, 
mon-u-er'-i-tis, 
mo-nu'-e-rint. 



I shall have been advised. 
mon'-i-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, 
mon'-i-tus e'-ris or fu'-e-ris, 
mon'-i-tus e'-rit or fu'-e-rit ; 
mon'-i-ti er'-i-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
mon'-i-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
mon'-i-ti e'-runt or fu'-e-rint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



I may or can advise. 

S. mo'-ne-am, 
mo'-ne-as, 
mo'-ne-at ; 

P. mo-ne-a'-mus, 
mo-ne-a'-tis, 
mo'-ne-ant. 



I may or can be advised. 

S. mo'-ne-ar, 

mo-ne-a'-ris or -re, 

mo-ne-a'-tur ; 
P. mo-ne-a'-mur, 

mo-ne-am'-i-ni, 

mo-ne-an'-tur. 



104 



VERBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



§ 157. 



ACTIVE. 

I might f could, would, 

should advise. 

S. mone'-rem, 

mo-ne-res, 

mo-ne'-ret ; 

P. mon-e-re'-mus, 



PASSIVE. 



mon-e-re-tis, 
mo-ne'-rent. 

I may have advised. 

S. mo-nu'-e-rim, 
mo-nu'-e-ris, 
mo-nu'-e-rit ; 

P. mon-u-er'-i-mus, 
mon-u-er'-i-tis, 
mo-nu'-e-rint. 



I might, could, would, or 
should have advised. 



S. 



mon-u-is'-sem, 

mon-u-is'-ses, 

mon-u-is'-set ; 

mon-u-is-se'-mus, 

mon-u-is-se'-tis, 

mon-u-is-sent. 



Imperfect. 

or I might, could, would f or 

should be advised. 
S. mo-ne'-rer, 

mon-e-re'-ris or -re, 
mon-e-re'-tur ; 
P. mo-n-e-re'-mur, 
mon-e-rem'-i-ni, 
mon-e-ren'-tur. 

Perfect. 

I may have been advised. 

S. mon'-i-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, 
mon'-i-tus sis or fa'-e-ris, 
mon'-i-tus sit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. mon'-i-ti si'-mus or fu-er'-i-raus, 
mon'-i-ti si'-tis or fu-er'-I-tis, 
mon'-i-ti sint or fu'-e-rint. 

Pluperfect. 
I might, could, would, or should 
have been advised. 

S. mon'-i-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
mon'-i-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
mon'-i-tus es'-set or fu-is'-set ; 

P. mon'-i-ti es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-mus, 
mon'-i-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
mon'-i-ti es'-sent or fu-is'-sent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



advise thou. 
8. mo'-ne, or mo-ne'-to, 

mo-ne'-to ; 
P. mo-ne'-te, or mon-e-to'-te, 

mo-nen'-to. 



be thou advised. 
S mo-ne'-re, or mo-ne'-tor, 

mo-ne'-tor ; 
P. mo-nem'-I-ni, 

mo-nen'-ior. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. mo-ne'-re, to advise. 
Perf. mon-u-is'-se, to have ad- 



Put. 



vised. 
mon-i-tu'-rus es'-se, 
about to advise. 



to be 



Pres. mo-ne'-ri, to be advised. 
Perf. mon'-i-tus es'-se or fu-is - 

se, to have been advised. 
Put. mon'-i-tum i'-ri, to be 

about to be advised. 



<§> 158. 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



105 



ACTIVE. 



PARTICIPLES. 



PASSIVE 



Perf. mon'-i-tus, advised. 
Fut. mo-nen'-dus, to be ad- 
vised. 



Pres. mo'-nens, advising. 
Fut. mon-i-tu'-rus, about to 
advise. 

GERUND. 
G. mo-nen'-di, of advising, 
D. mo-nen'-do, &c. 
Ac. mo-nen'-dum, 
Ah. mo-nen'do. 

SUPINES. 
Former, mon'-i-tum, to advise. \ Latter. mon'-T-tu, to be advised. 

Formation of the Tenses. 

From the second From the third root, 
root, monu, are monit, are 

derived, derived, 

Active. Passive. 

Ind. perf. monui, monit«s sum, &-C. 

plup. monueram, monitws eram, &.C. 

———fut. perf momi<?ro, monitws ero, &.C. 
Subj. perf monnirim, monFttts sim, &c. 
— — plup. monmssem, monXtus essem, &c. 
Inf. perf monmsse, monltws esse, otc. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. momturus esse, monltwm iri, 
Part. fut. moniturus, 
— — perf monltws, 

Form. Sup. momttim. Lot. Sup. monittt. 



From the first root, 


mon, are 


derived, 




Active. 


Passive. 


Ind. pres. moneo, 


moneor, 


— imperf monebam 


monibar, 


—fut. monebo, 


monibor, 


Subj. pres. moneam, 


monear, 


• imperf. monirem, 


monerer, 


Imperat. mone, 


monere. 


Inf. pres. monere, 


moneri, 


Part. pres. monens, 




>fut. 


monendus. 


Gerund. manendi. 





§158. THIRD CONJUGATION. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Ind. Re'-go, 
Pres. Inf. reg'-e-re, 
Perf. Ind. rex'-i, 

rec'-tum. 



Pres. Ind. re'-gor, 
Pres. Inf. re'-gi, 
Perf Part, rec'-tus. 



Sing 



Plur, 



I rule. 
re'-go, 
re'-gis, 
re'-git ; 
reg'-i-mus, 
reg-i-tis, 
re'-gunt. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

I am ruled. 

Sing, re'-gor, 

reg'-e-ris or -re s 
reg'-i-tur ; 

Plur. reg'-i-mur, 
re-gim'-i-ni, 



re-sun'-tur. 



106 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



$ 158. 



ACTIVE. 

/ was ruling. 
S. re-ge'-bam, 

re-ge'-bas, 

re-ge'-bat ; 
P. reg-e-ba'-mus, 

reg-e-ba'-tis, 

re-ge'-bant. 

I shall or will rule. 
S. re'-gam, 

re'-ges, 

re'-get ; 
P. re-ge'-mus, 

re-ge'-tis, 

re'-gent. 



I ruled or have ruled. 
S. rex'-i, 

rex-is'-ti, 

rex -it ; 
P. rex'-i-mus, 

rex-is'-tis, 

rex-e'-runt or -re. 



I had ruled. 

8. rex'-e-rara, 
rex'-e-ras, 
rex'-e-rat ; 

P. rex-e-ra'-mus, 
rex-e-ra'-tis, 
rex'-e-rant. 



Imperfect. 



PASSIVE 



/ was ruled. 



8. 



re-ge'-bar, 

reg-e-b;V-ris or ■ 
reg-e-ba'-tur ; 
P. reg-e-bfi'-mur, 
reg-e-bam'-I-ni, 
rejr-e-ban'-tur. 



re, 



Future. 



I shall or will be ruled. 
S. re'-gar, 

re-ge'-ris or -re, 

re-ge'-tur ; 
P. re-ge'-mur, 

re-gem'-I-ni, 

re-gen'-tur. 

Perfect. 

I was or have been ruled. 
S. rec'-tus sum or fu'-i, 
rec'-tus es or fu-is'-ti, 
rec'-tus est or fu'-it ; 
P. rec'-ti su'-mus or fu'-i-mus, 
rec'-ti es'-tis or fu-is '-tis, 
rec'-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 

Pluperfect. 

I had been ruled. 
S. rec'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
rec'-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-rasj 
rec'-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat ; 
P. rec'-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra-mus, 
rec'-ti e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, 
rec'-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant. 



/ shall have ruled. 

S. rex'-e-ro, 

rex-* 

rex'-e-rit ; 
P. rex-er-l-mus, 

rex-or'-i-tis, 

rex'-e-rint. 



Future Perfect. 

I shall have been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, 
rec'-tus e'-ris or fu'-c-ris, 
rec'-tus e'-rit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. rec'-ti er'-T-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
rec'-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-I-tis, 
rec'-ti e' -runt or fu'-e-rint. 



§ 15S. 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. 



107 



may or can ride. 


I may or can be ruled. 


S. re'-gam, 


S. re'-gar, 


re'-gas, 

re'-gat ; 

P. re-ga'-mus, 


re-ga'-ris or -re, 
re-ga'-tur ; 
P. re-ga'-mur, 


re-ga-tis, 
re'-gant. 


re-gam'-i-ni, 
re-gan'-tur. 



Imperfect. 



I might, could, would, or 

should rule. 

S. reg'-e-rem, 

reg'-e-res, 

reg'-e-ret ; 

P. reg-e-re'-mus, 

reg-e-re'-tis, 

re<r'-e-rent. 



I might, could, would, or 

should be ruled, 
S. reg'-e-rer, 

reg-e-re'-ris or -re, 

reg-e-re'-tur ; 
P. reg-e-re'-mur, 

reg-e-rem'-i-ni, 

reor-e-ren'-tur. 



I may have ruled. 

S. rex'-e-rim, 
rex'-e-ris, 
rex'-e-rit; 

P. rex-er'-l-inus, 
rex-er'-i-tis, 
rex'-e-rint. 



Perfect. 

I may have been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, 
rec'-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, 
rec'-tus sit or fu'-e-rit; 

P. rec'-ti si'-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
rec'-ti si'-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
rec'-ti sint or fu'-e-rint. 



I might, could, would, or 
should have ruled. 
S. rex-is'-sem, 

rex-is'-ses, 

rex-is'-set ; 
P. rex-is-se -mus, 

rex-is-se'-tis, 

rex-is'-sent. 



Pluperfect. 

J might, could, would, or should 
have been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
rec'-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
rec'-tus es'-set or fu-is'-set ; 

P. rec'-ti es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-mus, 
rec'-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
rec'-ti es -sent or fu-is'-sent 



108 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



§ 158. 



ACTIVE 



PASSIVE 



rule thou. 
S. re'-ge, or reg'-I-to, 

rcg'-i-to ; 
P. reg / -i-te, or reg-i-to'-te, 

re-gun'-to. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



be thou ruled. 

S. reg'-e-re, or reg'-Uor, 

reg'-i-tor ; 
P. re-gim'-i-ni, 

re-gun'-tor. 



Pres. reg'-e-re, to rule. 
Perf. rex-is'-se, to have ruled. 
Put. reotu'-rus es'-se, to be 
about to rule. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. re'-gi, to be ruled. 
Perf. rec'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se, 

to have been ruled. 
Put. rec'-tum i'-ri, to be about 

to be ruled. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. re'-gens, ruling. I Pafu rec /_ t ruM 

Put reotu'-rus, about to rule. \ Put. re-gen'-dus, to be ruled. 

GERUND. 
G. Te-gen'-di, of ruling, 
D. re-gen'-do, &c. 



-^. re-gen-ao, C 
Ac. re-gen'-dum, 
Ab. re-gen'-do. 



SUPINES. 
Former, rec'-tum, to rule. | Latter, rec'-tu, to be ruled. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, rcg, are 
derived. 



Jnd. pres. 

imperf. 

fut. 

Subj. pres. 

- imperf. 

Jrnperat. 
Inf. pres. 
Part. pres. 

fid. 

Gerund. 



Active. 

re;o, 

regtbam, 

regain, 

regam, 

regirem, 

rege, 

regtre, 

regens, 

regendi. 



Passive. 

ICgor, 

rcge'bar, 

regar, 

regar, 

rege~rer, 

regtre, 

regi, 

regendus. 



From the second root, 
rex, are derived, 

Active. 

Ind. perf. rexi, 

plup. rexiram, 

'—-fut.perf. rexero, 

Subj. perf. rexerim, 

—-— ■ plup. rexissem, 

Inf. perf. rexisse. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. Tectums esse, 
Part. fut. Tectums, 
— — perf. 
Form. Sup. Tectum. 



From the tliird 

root, rcct, are 

derived, 

Passive. 

rectus sum, &e. 

rect?/.s eram, &c. 

recUis ero, &c. 

rectws sim, &c. 

rectus essem, &c. 

rectus esse, &c. 

rectum iri, 



rectus, 

Lot. Sup. rectu. 



^ [59. VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 109 

ACT1VI1, PASSIVE. 

<§> 159. rilLNClI'AL FARTS. 



Pres. Ind. Ca'-pi-o, to take, 
Pres. Inf. cap-e-re, 
Perf. Ind. ce-pi, 
Supine. cap -turn. 



Pres. Ind. ca'-pi-or, to be 
taken, 

Pres. Inf. ca'-pi, 
Perf. Part, cap-tus. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



S. ca'-pi-o, 
ca'-pi s, 
ca -pit ; 

P. cap-T-inus, 
cap'-T-tis, 
ca'-pi-uut. 



S. ca'-pi-or, 
cap'-e-ris or - 
cap -I-tur ; 

P. cap'-i-mur, 
ca-pim'-i-ni, 
ca-pi-un'-tur. 



re, 



Imperfect. 



S. ca-pi-e'-bam, 
ca-pi-c'-bas, 
ca-pi-e -bat ; 

P. ca-pi-e-ba'-mus, 
ca-pi-e-ba'-tis, 
ca-pi-e'-bant. 



S. ca'-pi-am, 
ca'-pi-es, 
ca'-pi-et ; 

P. ca-pi-e'-mus, 
ca-pi-c'-tis, 
ca-pi-ent. 



S. ca-pi-e'-bar, 

ca-pi-e-ba'-ris or -re, 
ca-pi-e-ba'-tur ; 

P. ca-pi-e-ba'-mur, 
ca-pi-e-bam'-i-ni, 
ca-pi-e-ban'-tur. 



Future. 



S. ca'-pi-ar, 

ca-pi-e'-ris or • 
ca-pi-e -tur ; 

P. ca-pi-e'-mur, 
ca-pi-em'-i-ni, 
ca-pi-en'-tur. 



re. 



The parts formed from the second and third roots being en- 
tirely regular, only a synopsis of them is given. 



Prrf ce'-pi. 

PI up. cep -e-ram. 

Put. per f cep'-e-ro. 
10 



Perf 



cap'-tus sum or fu'-i. 
Plup. cap'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram. 
Fat. perf cap'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro. 



110 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. § 159. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



S. ca'-pi-am 
ca'-pi-as, 
ca'-pi-at ; 

P. ca-pi-a'-mus, 
ca-pi-a'-tis, 
ca'-pi-ant. 



S. ca'-pi-ar, 

ca-pi-a'-ris or -re, 

ca-pi-a'-tur j 
P. ca-pi-a'-mur, 

ca-pi-am'-I-ni, 

ca-pi-an'-tur. 



Imperfect. 



S. cap'-e-rem, 
cap'-e-res, 
cap'-e-ret ; 

P. cap-e-re'-mus, 
cap-e-re'-tis, 
cap'-e-rent. 

Perf. cep'-e-rim. 
Plup. ce-pis'-sem. 



S. ca'-pe, or cap'-i-to 

cap'-i-to ; 
P. cap'-I-te, or cap 

ca-pi-un'-to. 



S. cap'-e-rer, 

cap-e-re'-ris or -re, 
cap-e-re'-tur ; 

P. cap-e-re'-mur, 
cap-e-rem'-I-ni, 
cap-e-ren'-tur. 

Perf. cap'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim. 
Plup. cap'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem. 

VIPERATIVE MOOD. 

& cap'-e-re, or cap'-i-tor, 
cap'-i-tor ; 
to'-te, | P. ca-pim'-I-ni, 
ca-pi-un'-tor. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. cap'-e-re. 
Perf ce-pis'-se. 
Put. cap-tu'-rus es'-se. 



Pres. ca'-pi. 

Perf. cap'-tus es'-se or fu-is-se. 

Put. cap'-tum i'-ri. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. ca'-pi-ens. 
Put. cap-tu'-rus. 



Perf cap'-tus. 
Put. ca-pi-en'-dus. 



GERUND. 
G. ca-pi-en'-di, &c. j 

SUP[NES. 
Former, cap'-tum. | Latter. cap'-tu. 



160. VERBS. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE 



111 



$160. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Ind. Au'-di-o, 
Pres. Inf. au-dl'-re, 
Pcrf. Ind. au-dl'-vi, 
Supine. au-di'-tum. 



Pres. Ind. au'-di-or, 
Pres Inf. au-di'-ri, 
Perf Part, au-dl'-tus. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



I hear. 

S. au'-di-o, 
au'-dis, 
au'-dit ; 

P. au-dl'-mus, 
au-di'-tis, 
au'-di-unt. 



Present. 



J am heard. 
S. au'-di-or, 

au-dl'-ris or -re, 

au-di'-tur ; 
P. au-di'-mur, 

au-dim'-i-ni, 

au-di-un'-tur. 



Imperfect. 



I was hearing. 

S. au-di-e'-bam, 
au-di-e'-bas, 
au-di-e'-bat ; 

P. au-di-e-ba'-mus, 
au-di-e-ba'-tis, 
au-di-e'-bant. 



I was heard. 

S. au-di-e'-bar, 

au-di-e-ba'-ris or -re, 
au-di-e-ba'-tur ; 

P. au-di-e-ba'-mur, 
au-di-e-bam'-i-ni, 
au-di-e-ban'-tur. 



Future. 



I shall or will hear. 
S. au'-di-am, 

au'-di-es, 

au'-di-et ; 
P. au-di-e'-mus, 

au-di-e'-tis, 

au'-di-ent. 



/ shall or will he heard, 

S. au'-di-ar, 

au-di-e'-ris or -re, 

au-di-e'-tur ; 
P. au-di-e'-mur, 

au-di-em'-i-ni, 

au-di-en'-tur. 



112 



VERBS. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



$ 160 



ACTIVE. 



PASSIVE, 



Perfect. 



I heard or have heard. 
S. au-dF-vi, 

au-di-vis'-ti, 

au-di'-vit ; 
P. au-div'-i-mus, 

au-di-vis'-tis, 

au-di-ve'-runt or -re. 



I had heard. 

S. au-div'-e-ram, 
au-div'-e-ras, 
au-div'-e-rat ; 

P. au-di-ve-ra'-mus, 
au-di-ve-ra'-tis, 
au-div'-e-rant. 



I have been or was heard. 

S. au-dl-tus sum or fu'-i, 
au-dF-tus es or fu-is'-ti, 
au-dF-tus est or fu -it ; 

P. au-dl'-ti su'-mus or fu'-i-mus, 
au-df-ti es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
au-di'-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 



Pluperfect. 

I had been heard. 

S. au-dl'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
au-dr-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, 
au-dF-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat ; 

P. au-dF-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra'-mus, 
au-dF-ti e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, 
au-dF-ti errant or fu'-e-rant. 



Future Perfect. 
I shall have heard. I shall have been heard. 



S. au-div'-e-ro, 
au-div'-e-ris, 
au-div'-e-rit ; 

P. au-di-ver'-i-mus, 
au-di-ver-i-tis, 
au-div'-e-rint. 



S. au-dr-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, 
au-dF-tus e'-ris or fu'-e-ris, 
au-dr-tus e'-rit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. au-dl'-ti er'-i-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
au-dr-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-I-tis, 
au-dF-ti e'-runt or fu'-e-rint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



/ may or can hear. 
S. au'-di-am, 
au'-di-as, 
au'-di-at ; 
P. au-di-a'-mus, 
au-di-a'-tis, 
au'-di-ant. 



Present, 



I may or can be heard. 
S. au'-di-ar, 

au-di-a'-ris or -re, 

au-di-a'-tur ; 
P. au-di-a'-mur, 

au-di-am'-i-ni, 

au-di-an'-tur 



§ 160. 



VERBS. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



113 



ACTIVE 



PASSIVE 



Imperfect. 



might, could, would, 
should hear. 
S. au-dF-rem, 
au-dF-res, 
au-dF-ret ; 
P. au-di-re'-mus, 
au-di-re-tis, 
au-dl'-rent. 



or 



might, could, would, or 

should be heard. 
S. au-dF-rer, 

au-di-re'-ris or -re, 

au-di-re'-tur ; 
P. au-di-re'-mur, 

au-di-rem'-i-ni, 

au-di-ren'-tur. 



I may have heard. 

S. au-div'-e-rim, 
au-div'-e-ris, 
au-div'-e-rit ; 

P. au-di-ver'-i-mus, 
au-di-ver'-I-tis, 
au-div'-e-rint. 



Perfect. 

I may have been heard. 

S. au-di'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, 
au-di-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, 
au-dF-tus sit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. au-dF-ti si'-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
au-di'-ti sF-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
au-dF-ti sint or fu'-e-rint. 



I might, could, ivould, 
or should have heard. 
S. au-di-vis'-sem, 
au-di-vis'-ses, 
au-di-vis'-set ; 
P. au-di-vis-se'-mus, 
au-di-vis-se'-tis, 
au-di-vis-sent. 



Pluperfect. 

I might, could, would, or should 
have been heard. 
S. au-dF-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
au-dF-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
au-dF-tus es'-set or fu-is'-set ; 
P. au-dF-ti es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-mus, 
au-dF-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
au-dF-ti es'-sent or fu-is'-sent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
hear thou. be thou heard. 



S. au'-di, or au-dl -to, 

au-dF-to ; 
P. au-dF-te, or au-di-to'-te, 

au-di-un'-to. 
10* 



S. au-dF-re, or au-dl-tor, 

au-dF-tor ; 
P. au-dim'-i-ni, 

au-di-un'-tor 



114 VERBS. FOURTH CONJUGATION. $ 161. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. au-dl'-re, to hear. 
Perf. au-di-vis'-se, to have 

heard. 
Put. au-di-tu'-rus es'-se, to be 

about to hear. 



Pres. au-dl'-ri, to be heard. 
Perf. au-dl'-tus es'-se or fu is'- 

se, to have been heard. 
Put. au-di'-tum i'-ri, to be 

about to be heard. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.au'-di-ens, hearing. \Ferf. au-dF-tus, heard. 

Fut. au-di-tu'-rus, about to hear. \Fut. au-di-en'-dus, to be heard. 

GERUND. 

G. au-di-en'-di, of hearing, 
D. au-di-en'-do, &c. 
Ac. au-di-en'-dum, 
Ab. au-di-en'-do. 

SUPINES. 
Former, au-di'-tum, to hear. \ Latter, au-di'-tu, to be heard. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, aud, are 
derived, 



lnd. pres. 

imperf. 

fut. 

Subj. pres. 

— imperf. 
Imperat. 
Inf. pres. 
Part. pres. 

fut. 

Gerund. 



Active. 


Passive. 


audio, 


audior, 


audiebam 


, audiebar, 


audio in, 


audiar, 


aud /am, 


audior, 


audirem, 


au direr, 


audi, 


audire, 


audire, 


audiri, 


&u.diens } 






audiendus 



audiendi. 



From the second root, 
aud.lv, are derived, 



From the third 

root, audit, are 

derived, 

Passive. 
auditws sum, Sec. 
audita; eram. &C. 
audittw ero, &c. 
audiu/s sim, &c. 



Active. 

lnd. perf. audivi, 

plup. axxd'wtram 

— . fut. perf. audivero, 
Subj. perf. audiverizra, 

plup. audlvissem, auditua essem, &,c. 

Inf. perf. aud\\isse. audita esse, &.c. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. auditfirtu esse, auditton iri, 

Part. fut. audita rus, 

perf. audit'/*-, 

Form. Sup. audit u//i. Lot. Sup. auditu. 



DEPONENT VERBS. 

§ 161. Deponent verbs are conjugated like the passive 
voice, and have also all the participles and participial forma- 
tions of the active voice. Neuter deponent verbs, however, 



I Ifil DEPONENT VERBS. H 5 

want the future passive participle, except that the neuter in 
dum is sometimes used impersonally. 

The following is an example of an active deponent verb oi 
the first conjugation : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Mi'-ror, mi-ra'-ri, mi-ra'-tus, to admire. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pres mi'-ror, mi-ra'-ris, &c. I admire &c. 

Tmperf. mi-ra'-bar, &c. I »as admiring. 

Put. mi-ra'-bor, I shall admire 

Pcrf mi-ra'-tus sum or fu'-i, / have admired 

riun mi-ra'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, I had admired. 

Fut. 'pcrf. mi-ra'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, I shall have admired. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pres mi'-rer, mi-re'-ris, &c. I may admire, &c. 

Tmperf. mi-ra'-rer, J«™« •*■««; . , 

plrf. mi-ra'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, J may A«»e aAwrwf. 

Pfcp. mi-ra'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, I would have admired. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, 
mi-ra'-re, or mi-ra'-tor, admire thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

" Pres. mi-ra'-ri, to admire _ 

P,rf mi-ra'-tus esse or fu-is'-se, to toe admired < 

*Vrf art. mir-a-tu'-rus es'-se, to be about to admire. 

Z'.pass. mi-ra'-tum i'-ri, ^ oe «6o M « to 6, oAroZ. 

PARTICIPLES. 

JPrc* mi'-rans, admiring. 

Pcrf mi-ra'-tus, having admired. 

Put. art. mir-a-tu'-rus, about to admire. 

Put. pass, mi-ran'-dus, to be admired. 

GERUND. 
G. mi-ran'-di, of admiring, &c. 

SUPINES. 
Former, mi-ra'-tum, to admire. —Latter, mi-ra'-tu, to be admired 



116 verbs. remarks on the conjugations. § 162. 

Remarks on the Conjugations. 

Of the Tenses formed from the First Root. 

<§> 1 G2. 1. A few words in the present subjunctive of the first and 
third conjugations, in the earlier writers, end in ivi ; as, edim for edam, 
dm m for dun (from an old form duo),crccluim and pcrduim for credam and 
perdam. This was retained as the regular form in sim and velim, from 
sum and volo, and in their compounds. 

2. The imperfect indicative in the fourth conjugation, sometimes, espe- 
cially in the more ancient writers, ends in ibam and ibar, for ubam and 
iebar, and the future in ibo and ibor, for iam and iar ; as, vestlbam, larglbar, 
for vestiebam, largiebar; scibo, opperlbor, for sciam, opperiur. Ibam and 
ibor were retained as the regular forms of eo, quco, and ncqueo. § ls2. 

3. The termination re, in the second person singular of the passive 
voice, is rare in the present, but common in the other simple tenses. 

4. The imperatives of dico,duco, facia, and fero, are usually written die, 
due, fuc, and ftr ; in like manner their compounds, except those com- 
pounds officio which change a into i. Scio has not sci, but scito. 

5. In the second person of the imperative passive, an ancient form in 
mlno in the singular, and minor in the plural, is very rarely found ; as, 
famino for fare, progrediminor for prog red imini. 

6. The syllable er was often addec to the present infinitive passive by 
the early poets ; as, aiaarier for amdri, dicier for did. 

Of the Tenses formed from the Second Root. 

7. When the second root ends in v, a syncopation often occurs in the 
tenses formed from it, by omitting v, with the first vowel of the termina- 
tion, when followed, in the fourth conjugation, hy s, and in the other 
conjugations, by s or r; as, aadissem for audivissem, amdsti for amavisti, 
implerunt for iinpicverunt, noram and ndsse for noveram and novisse. 

When the second root ends in iv, v alone is often omitted : as, audicro 
for audivero ; audiisse for audivisse. 

When this root ends in s or x, the syllables is, iss, and sis, are 

sometimes omitted in the termination of tenses derived from it; as, cvasti 

for evasi&ti, extinxti for cxtinxisti, divisse for dicisisse; extinxem for extinx- 

surrexe for surrcxisse ; accestis for accessistis, justi for jussisti. So 

fujini for (ficslssem.) fecisscm. 

8. In the third person plural of the perfect indicative active, the form in 
ire is less common than that in erunt, especially in prose. 

9. Ancient forms of a future perfect in so, and a perfect subjunctive in 

imetimes occur. They may, in general, be formed by adding these 
terminations to the second root of the verb ; as, rccepso, emissim. But 
when the root ends in x, and frequently when it ends in s, only o and im 
arc added ; as, jusso, dizis. V, at the end of the root, is changed intos; 
as, levasso, locassim. L T , at the end of the root, is changed into esso ; as, 
• imetimes the vowel of the present is retained in these forms, 
though changed in the other parts derived from the second root; as, 
capsn, faxo (jacso) , faxim (Jacsim). 

Noii.. Faxo and faxim sometimes have the meaning of ihe future 



§ 1G2. VERBS. REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 117 

10. A future infinitive in sSre is also sometimes found, which is formed 
by adding that termination to the second root, changing, as before, v into s; 
as, impetrassSre for impetratHrus esse. 

Of the Tenses formed from the Third Root. 

11. The supine in um, though called one of the principal parts of the 
verb, belongs in fact to very i'ew verbs, the whole number which have su- 
pines not amounting to three hundred. The part called in dictionaries the 
supine in um must therefore, in most cases, be considered as the neuter 
gender of the perfect participle. 

12. In the compound tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, 
the participle is always in the nominative case, but it is used in both num- 
bers, and in all genders, to correspond with the number and gender of the 
subject of the verb ; as, amdtus, -a, -urn, est ; amdti, -a., -a, stmt, &c. 

Fui, fueram, fuerim, and fuissem, are seldom used in the compound 
tenses of deponent verbs, and not so often as sum, &c, in those of other 
verbs, but they express more emphatically than the latter the completion 
of the action. In the pluperfect subjunctive, forem, fyc, for essem, tyc., are 
sometimes found. 

13. The participles in the perfect and future infinitive, are used only in the 
nominative and accusative, but in all genders and in both numbers; as, 
amdtus, -a, -um, esse or fuisse ; amdiam, -am, -um, esse or fuisse ; amdti, 
-<£, -a, esse or fuisse; amdtos, -as, -a, esse ox fuisse ; and so of the others. 

But these participles in this combination with esse, are sometimes used 
as indeclinable ; as, eolwrtes ad me rnissum facias. Cic. 

Pe rijjh rastic Conjugations . 

14. The participle in rus, joined to the tenses of the verb sum, 
denotes intention, or being upon the point of doing something. 
Hence arises what is called the periphrastic conjugation. 

INDICATIVE. 

amaturus sum, I am about to love. 

amaturus eram, I was about to love. 

amaturus ero, / shall be about to love. 

amaturus fui, / was or have been about to love. 

amaturus fueram, / had been about to love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amaturus sim, I may be about to love. 

amaturus essem, I would be about to love. 

amaturus fuerim, I may have been about to love. 

amaturus fuissem, I would have been about to love. 

INFINITIVE. 

amaturus esse, to be about to love. 

amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love. 



118 VERBS. REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. §162. 

FuSro is not found joined with the participle in rus. 

15. The participle in dus, with the verb sum, expresses neces- 
sity or propriety ; as, amandus sum, I must be loved, or deserve 
to be loved. With the various moods and tenses of sum, it forms 
a second periphrastic conjugation ; — thus : 

amandus sum, amandus sim, 

amandus eram, amandus essem, 



amandus ero, 
amandus fui, 
amandus fueram, 
amandus fuero. 



amandus fuerim, 
amandus fuissem, 
amandus esse, 
amandus fuisse. 



Participle 



1C. Neuter verbs, as they want the passive voice, have usually only the 
participles of the active. Some of them, however, have perfect participles, 
of which a part are to be translated passively, others by past participles of 
English neuter verbs. Such are adultus, cessdtus, clamdtus, coalitus, con- 
cretus, defectus, dejlagrdtus, emersus, errdtus, interxtus. obitus, ocedsus, pla- 
cltus, redunddtus, regndtus, requietus, suddtus, suetus, triumphdtus, ululdtus, 
vigildtus. 

The following 1 perfect participles, from verbs which are sometimes active, 
are also translated by active participles : — ccendtus, having supped ; potus, 
having drunk ; pransus, having dined ; and sometimes jurdtus, having 
sworn. 

Some neuter verbs, also, have future passive participles ; as, dormiendus, 
errandus, regnandus, vigilandus, &c. 

Note. Most passive participles of neuter verbs are indicated in the lists 
which follow. 

For the active meaning of osus and its compounds, see § 183, 1. 

17. The perfect participles of some deponent verbs have both an active 
and a passive sense ; as, adeptus libertatem, having obtained liberty, or 
adeptd Ubcrtdte, liberty having been obtained. 

So abomindtus , comitdtus, commentdtus, complexus, confessus, contestdtus, 
dctestdtus, digndtus, dimensus, emensus, ementitus, emeritus, expertus, exsc- 
crdtus, inter pretdtus, largltus, machindtus, meditdtus, meredtus, metdtus, 
oblitus, orsus, pactus, partitus, perfunctus, pollicitus, testdtus, venerdtus, 
ultus. The participle in dus, of dep. verbs is commonly passive. 

IS. The participles of neuter passive verbs have the signification of the 
active voice ; as, gavlsus, having rejoiced. (See in lists.) 

But ausus is used both in an active and passive sense ; as, ausi omnes 
immdne nefas, ausoque potlti. Virg. 

19. The genitive plural of participles in rus is seldom used, except that 
offutiirus. Venturorum is found in Ovid, Met. 15, 835. 

20. In the third and fourth conjugations, the future passive participle 
sometimes ends in undus, especially when i precedes. Potior has usually 
potiundus. In these conjugations the gerund also has sometimes undi, dec. 

21. Many present and perfect participles are compounded with in, sig- 



§ 163. VERBS. RULES OF CONJUGATION. 119 

nifying not, whose verbs do not admit of such composition ; they thus be- 
come adjectives ; as, insciens, ignorant ; irnpardtus, unprepared. 

22. Participles, when they do not express distinctions of time, become 
adjectives, and as such are compared ; as, amans, loving ; amantior, aman- 
tisslmus. In some instances, they become substantives ; as, prafectus, a 
commander. 

Note. Many words derived from substantives, with the terminations 
of participles, dtus, itus, and utvj, are yet adjectives ; as, aldtus, winged • 
turrltus, turreted, &c. See § 128, 7. 



General Rules of Conjugation. 

<§> 163. 1. Verbs which have a in the first root have it 
also in the third, though it be changed in the second ; as, fa- 
cto, factum ; habeo, habitum. 

% The connecting vowel is often omitted in the second root, 
and in such cases, if v follows, it is changed into u. This 
happens in most verbs of the second conjugation. 

Remark. Some verbs prefix to the second root their initial 
consonant, with the vowel which follows it, or with e; as, curro, 
cucurri ; folio, fefelli. This prefix is called a reduplication. 
Spondeo and sto lose s in the second syllable, making spopondi 
and steti. For the verbs that take a reduplication, see §§ 165, 
168, and 171, Exc. i, (b.) 

3. Verbs which want the second root want also the third. 

4. Compound verbs form their second and third roots like 
the simple verbs of which they are compounded; as, audio, 
audivi, auditum ; exaudio, ezaudivi, exauditum. 

Some compound verbs, however, are defective, whose simples are com- 
plete, and some are complete, whose simples are defective. 

Exc. 1. Compound verbs omit the reduplication; but the 
compounds of do, sto, disco, posco, and some of those of curro, 
retain it ^ 

Exc. 2. Verbs which, in composition, change a into e in the 
first root, (see § 189, 2,) retain e in the second and third roots 
of the compound ; as, scando, scandi, scansum ; descendo, de- 
scendi, descensum. 

Exc. 3. When a, cs, or e, in the first root of the simple verb, 
is changed in the compound into i, the same is retained in the 
second and third roots, in case the third root of the simple is a 
dissyllable; as, habeo, liabui, habitum ; prohibeo, prohibui, pro- 
hibitum. 

But if the third root is a monosyllable, the second root of the 
compound has usually the same vowel as that of the simple, 



1^0 



VERRS. SECOND AND THIRD HOOTS. [I CONJ. 



but sometimes changes a or r into/, and the third root has c; as, 
fario, feci, factum ; cunjicio, confici, confectum ; tenee, tcnui, 
tint urn; rctuico, rctinui, retention; rapio, abripio, -rip, -rcpt. 

Note. The compounds of cado, ago, frango, pango, and tango, retain 
a, and those of salio retain u, in the third root. 

Exc. 4. Compounds of pario, and some of do and cubo, are of differen 
conjugations from their simple verbs. 

A few other exceptions will be noticed in the following lists. 

Formation of Second and Third Roots. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 

<§> 164. In regular verbs of this conjugation, the second 
root ends in dv, and the third in at ; as, amo, ainavi, amat«M. 
The following list contains such regular verbs of this conjuga- 
tion as are of most frequent occurrence. 

Note. In this and the subsequent lists, those verbs which are marked 
* are said to have no perfect participle ; those marked t to have no pres- 
ent participle. A dash ( — ) after the present, denotes that there is no sec- 
ond root. The participles in rus and dus, and the supines in u?n and u 
which are in use, are indicated respectively by the letters r., d., ?«., and u. 
Abundo, for example, has no perfect participle, no supine, no participle in 
dus ; but it has a present participle, and a participle in rus. 

In the lists of irregular verbs, those compounds only are given, whose 
conjugation differs from that of their simples. 

When p. is subjoined to a deponent verb, it denotes that some of the 
parts which have commonly an active meaning, are used either actively and 
passively, or passively alone. Such verbs are by some grammarians call- 
ed common. 



*Abundo, r. to ovcrfloio. 

Accuso, m. r. d. to ac- 
cuse. 

t Adumbro, to delineate. 

jftdiflco, r. d. to build. 

iEquo, r. d. to level. 

iEstimo, r. d. to value. 

*Ambulo, m. d. to walk. 

Amo, r. d. to lore. 

fAmplio, d. to enlarge. 

Appello, d. to call. 

Apto, d. to Jit. 

Aro, r. d. to plough. 

*t Ausculto, to listen. 

*tAutumo, to suppose. 

tBasio, — ,d. to hiss. 

*Bello, m. r. d. to wage 
war. 

?Beo, to bless. 

*Boo, to bellow. 



tBrevio, to shorten. 

tCceco, to blind. 

tCselo, to carve. 

tCalceo, d. to shoe. 

*tCalcitro, to kick. 

Canto, m. to sing. 

Capto. m. r. d. tosieze. 

tCastigo, m. d.to chas- 
tise. 

Celebro, d. to celebrate. 

Celo, d. to conceal. 

Cesso, d. to cease. 

Certo, r. d. to strive. 

Clamo, to shout. 

Cogito, d. to think. 

Comparo, d. to compare. 

Concilio, r. d. to recon- 
cile. 

Considero, r. d. to con- 
sider. 



Cremo, d. to burn. 
concremo, r. 

tCreo, r. d. to create. 

Crucio, d. to torment. 

Culpo, r. d. to blame. 

tCuneo, d. to wedge. 

Curo, r. d. to care. 

Danmo, m. r. d. to con- 
demn. 

Decoro, d. to adorn. 

*tDelineo, to delineate 

Desidero, r. d. to de- 
sire. 

Destlno, d. to design. 

Dico, m. r. d. to dedi- 
cate. 

Dicto, to dictate. 

iDolo, to hew. 

Dono, r. d. to bestow. 

Dupllco, r. d. to double. 



i CONJ.] VERBS.— SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



121 



Duro, r. to harden. 
lEili-no, to -portray. 
BqultO, to ride. 
Hinucleo, to explain 
Erro, to wander. 
F.xistiino,u.r.d.to think. 
R Tplfiro, m. d. to search. 
Exttlo, m. r. to 6e ban- 
ished. 
Fabrlco, d. to frame. 
IFatlgo, r. d. to weary. 
Festlno, r. to hasten. 
Firmo,r.d.to strengthen. 
Flagito,m.d. ti demand. 
■Flagro, r. to be on fire. 
condagro, r. 
defiagro. 
Flo, d. to blow. 
Formo, r. d. to form. 
Foro, d. to bore. 
iFraeno, to bridle. 
tFraudo, d. to defraud. 
tFrio, — , to crumble. 
Fugo, r. d. to put to 

flight. 
IFu ido, r. to found. 
IFurio, — , to madden. 
JGaleo, — , to put on a 

helmet. 
Gesto, d. to bear. 
Glacio, — , to congeal. 
GravOj d. to weigh 

doicn. 
Gusto, d. to taste. 
Hablto, m. d. to dwell. 
*Halo, — , to breathe. 
Hieino, in. to winter. 
*Hio, d. to gape. 
• tHurao, r. d. to bury. 
J ado, r. d. to throw. 
[gnoro, r. d. to be igno- 
rant. 
trapero, r. d. to com- 
mand. 
tlmpetro, r. d. to obtain. 
Inchoo, r. to begin. 
tlndago, r. d. to trace 

out. 
Indico, m. r. d. to show. 
tlnebrio, — , to inebri- 
ate. 
Initio, to initiate. 
Inqulno, to pollute. 
Instauro, d. to renew. 
Intro, r. d. to enter. 
Invito, d. to invite. 
irnto, r. d. to irritate. 



[tsro,u,d,todoag"flin. 
Judico, r. d. to judge. 

JugO, d. to couple. 

Jugilo, m. d. to butcher. 
Juro, d. to swiar. 
Labero, r. d. to labor. 
Lac6ro, d. to tear. 

*Lacto, to suckle. 
tLanio, d. to butcher. 
LatXO, to bark. 
Laudo, r. d. to praise. 
Laxo, d. to loose. 
iLego, to depute. 
Levo, r. d. to lighten. 
Libero, r. d. to free. 
Libo, d. to pour out. 
Ligo, to bind. 
tLiquo, d. to melt. 

Lito, to appease. 

Loco, r. d. to p/acc. 

Lustro, d. to surrey. 

Luxurio, to abound. 

Macto, d. to stay. 

Maculo, to 5'«i/i. 

Mando,r.d.to command. 

Manduco, to c/iczo. 

*Mano, to JtoM>. 

Maturo, d. to ripen. 

Mpmoro, u. d. to to£J. 

*Meo, to go. 

*Wigro,u.T. d.to depart. 

*Millto, m. r. to serve in 

tear. 
tMinio, d. to paint red. 
Ministro, d. to serve. 
Mitigo, d. to pacify- 
Monstro, r. to show. 

tdemonstro, d. 
Muto, r. d. to change. 
Narro, r. d. to toW. 
Nato, m. r. to suuni. 
tNavigo, r. d. to sail. 
Navo, r. d. to perform. 
*Nauseo, to toafAe. 
Nego, m. r. d. to deny. 
*No. to swim. 

Nomino, r. d. to na?ae. 

Noto, d. to mark. 

Novo. r. d. to renew. 

Nudo, d. to mafce bare. 

Nuncupo, r. d. to name. 

Nuntio, m. r. to tell. 
renuntio, d. 

*Nuto, r. to nod. 

Obsecro,m.r.d. to oeseecA 

Obtrunco, r. to fcsU. 

Onuio, r. d. to toad. 



Opto, d. to wish. 
lOrbo, r. to deprive 

Orno, r. d. to </</,'/■//. 
Oio, in. r. d. to &e#. 
Paco, d. to subdue. 
Paro, r. d. to prepare . 

Patro, r. d. to' perform. 
Pecco, r. d. toszn. 
tPio, d. to propitiate. 
Placo, r. d. to appease 
Ploro, m. d. to bewail 
Porto, u. r. d. to ca /vm. 
Postulo, in. r. d. to de- 

mand. 
Privo, d. to deprive. 
Probo, m. u. r. d. toap- 
prove. 
comprSbo, m. 
Profllgo, d. to rowi. 
Propero, d. to hasten. 
*tProp!no, to driwA to. 
Propitio, d.to appease. 
Pugno, r. d. to fight. 
Pulso, d. to fceat. 
Purgo,u.r. d. to cleanse. 
Puto, d. to think. 
Quasso, d. to shake. 
Radio, to c?»i£ rays. 
Rapto, d. to d/Y^. 
Recupero, m. r. d. to 

recover. 
Recuso, r. d. to re/ksc. 
Redundo, to overflow. 
Regno, r. d. to rato. 
tRepudio,r. d.to reicc/. 
Resero, d. to unlock. 
*lRetalio, — , to retali- 
ate. 
Pugo, to water. 
Rogo, ra. r. d. to asA. 
Roto, to whirl. 
Sacrifico,m.to sacrifice. 
Sacro, d. to consecrate. 
tSagino, d. to fatten. 
Salto, r. to da/tee. 
Saluto.m.r. d. to saZuto. 
Sano, r. d. to AeaL 
Satio, to satiate. 
tSaturo, to ,/M. 
Saucio, d. to wound. 
*Secundo, to prosper. 
Sedo, m. d. to allay. 
Servo, r. d. to keep. 
*1SibIlo, to /tiss 
Sicco, d. to r//?/. 
Signo, r. d. to mark out. 
assiiiiio. in. 



122 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [1 CONJ. 



Simulo, r. d. to pretend. 

Socio, d. to associate. 

*Somnio, to dream. 

Specto, m. r. d. to be- 
hold. 

Spero, r. d. to hope. 

*Spiro, to breathe. 
conspiro. 
exspiro,r. 
suspiro, d. 

Spolio, m. d. to rob. 

Spumo, to foam. 

Stillo, to drop. 

Stimulo, to goad. 

Stipo, to stuff. 

Sudo, to sioeat. 

SufFbco, to strangle. 

Sugillo, d. to taunt. 

Supero, r. d. to over- 
come. 

Suppedlto, to afford. 



*SupplIco, m. to sup- 
plicate. 

*Susurro, to whisper. 

Tardo, to delay. 

Taxo, d. to rate. 

Temero, d. to defile. 

Tempero, r. d. to tem- 
per. 
obtempero, r. to obey. 

Tento, m. r. d. to try. 

Terebro, to bore. 

Termlno, r. d. to limit. 

Titubo, to stagger. 

Tolero,u. r. d. to bear. 

Tracto, u. d. to handle. 

*ITripudio, to dance. 

Triumpho, r. to tri- 
umph. 

Trucldo, r. d. to kill. 

Turbo, d. to disturb. 

*Vaco, to be at leisure. 



*Vapulo, m. d. to be 
beaten. 

Vario, to diversify. 

Vasto, d. to lay waste. 

Vellico, to pluck. 

Verbero, r. d. to beat. 

*Vestigo, to search for. 

Vexo, d. to tease. 

Vibro, d. to brandish. 

Vigllo, d. to watch. 

Viulo, m. r. d. to vio- 
late. 

Vitio, d. to vitiate. 

Vito, u. d. to shun. 

Ululo, to hoicl. 

Umbro, r. to shade. 

Voco, r. d. to call. 

*Volo, to fly. 

Voro, r. to devour. 

Vulgo, r. d. to publish. 

Vulnero, d. to wound. 



^ 165. The following verbs of the first conjugation are 
irreo-ular or defective in their second and third roots : — 



*Crepo, crepui, to make a noise. 
*discrepo, -ui or -avi. 
increpo, -ui or -avi, -itum. or atum 
*ipercrepo, — . 
*trecrepo, — . 
*Cubo,cubui, cubitum (sup.), to re- 
cline. 
incubo, -ui or -avi, d. 
Those compounds of cubo which take 
m before b, are of the third con- 
jugation. 
Do, dedi, datum, m. r. d. to give. 
So circumdo, pessumdo, satisdo, 
and venumdo ; the other coin- 
pounds of do are of the third 
conjugation. 
Domo, domui, domltum, r.d. to tame. 
Frico, fricui, frictum or fricatum, 
d. to rub. 
confrlco, — , -atum. 
infrlco, — , -atum. 
Juvo, juvi, jutum, r. d., also juvatu- 
rus, to help. 
So adjiivo, -juvi, -jutum, m. r. d. 
*Labo, — , to totter. 
Lavo, lavi, lavatum, lautum or lo- 
tum ; (sup.) lautum or lava- 
tum, lavaturus, d. to wash. 
Lavo is also sometimes of the 
third conjugation. 
*Mico, micui, to glitter. 



dimico, -avi or -ui, r. (-aturus). 
*emico, -ui, r. (-aturus). 
, *intermIco, — . 
*promico, — , d. 
Neco, necavi or necui, necatum, r. d. 
to kill. 
eneco, -avi or -ui, -atum, or 

-turn, d. 
tinterneco, — , -atum. 
*tNexo, — , to tie. 
Plico, — , plicatum, to fold. 
dupllco, -avi, -atum, r. d. 
multiplTco and repllco have -avi, 

-atum. 
*suppl!co, -avi, m. r. 
appllco, -avi or -ui, -atum or 

-Itum, -iturus. So impllco. 
compllco, -ui, -itum or -atum. 
explico, -avi or -ui, -atum or 
-Itum, r. r. 
Poto, potavi, potatum or potum, r. r. 
m. m. d. to drink. 
tepoto, -avi, -urn. 
*perpoto, -avi. 
Secc, sccui, sectum, secaturus, d. 
to cut. 
*circvimseco, — . 
"interseco, — , d. 
*perseco, -ui 

pi aeseco, -ui, -turn or -atum. So 
reseco, d. 



1 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



123 



( Sono, sonui, -atiirus, d. to sound. 
*consono, -ui. So ex-, in-, per-, 

prce-sono. 
*resono, -avi. 
*assono, — . So circumsono and 

dissono. 
'Sto, steti, staturus, to stand. 

*antesto, -steti. So circumsto, 

intersto, supersto. 
*consto, -stlti, -staturus. So 

exto, insto, obsto, persto. 



*praDsto, -stlti, -staturus, d. 

*adsto, -stlti, -stiturus. 

*prosto, -stiti. So resto. [persto. 

*disto, — . So substo and su- 
*Tono, tonui, to thunder. So cir- 
cumtono. 

attono, -ui, -ltum. 

intono, -ui, -atum. 

*retuno, — . 
Veto, vetui,or avi,vetitum, to forbid. 



<§> 166. All deponent verbs, of the first conjugation, are 
regular, and are conjugated like miror ; as, 

Opsonor, m. to cater. 

1 Otior, to be at leisure. 

Pabulor, m. d. to graze. 

Palor, to wander. 

Percontor,m. to inquire. 

Periclitor, d. p. to try. 
Hortor, d. to encourage. tPiscor, m. to fish. 
Imitor, u. r. d. to imi- Populor, r. d. p. to lay 



tate. 
Indignor, d. to disdain. 
Infitior, d. to deny. 
Insector, to pursue. 
Insidior, r. d. to lie in 

wait. 
Jaculor, p. to dart. 
Jocor, to jest. 



Abominor, d. to abhor. *Frumentor, m. to for 

Adulor, d. to fatter. age. 

iEmulor, d. to rival. Furor, m. to steal. 

"Aprlcor, to bash in the Glorior, r. d. to boast, 
sun. Gratulor, m. d. to con 

Arbitror, r. d. to think. gratulate. 

Aspernor, d. p. to de- 
spise. 

Aucupor, r. p. to hunt 
after. 

Auxilior, p. to help. 

Aversor, d. to dislike. 

Calumnior, to calumni- 
ate. 

Causor, to allege. 

*Comissor, m. to revel. 

Comltor, p. to accom- 
pany. 

Concionor,fo harangue. 

*Confabulor, m. to dis- 
course. 

Conor, d. to endeavor. 

tConspicor, to see. 

Gontemplor, d. p. to 
view. 

Criminor, m. p. to 
blame. 

Cunctor, d. p. to delay. 

Deprecor, m. r. d. p. to 
deprecate. 

*tDigladior 7 to fence. 

Dignor, d. p. to think 
worthy. 

Dominor, to rule. 

Epulor, r. d. to feast. 

*Famulor, m. to icait on. 



waste. 
Prcedor, m. to plunder. 
Proelior, to fight. 
Precor, m. u. r. d. to 

pray. 

cord< 

ber. 
Rimor, d. to search. 



Mercor, m. r. d. p. to 

buy. 
Minor, to threaten. 
Miror, u. r. d. to admire. 
Miseror, d. to pity. 
Moderor, u. d. to ride. 
Modulor, d. p. to mod- 
ulate. 
Moror, r. d. to delay. 
tMutuor, p. to borrow. 
Negotior, r. to traffic. 
*tNugor, to trifle. 
Fatur, (defect.) u. d. to Obtestor, p. to beseech. 

speak. See § 183, 6. Operor, to work. 
tFerior, r. to keep holi- Opmor, u. r. d. to think. 
day. Opitulor, m. to help. 



Laetor, r. d. p. to rejoice. Rixor, to scold. 

Lamentor, d. p. to be- *RustIcor, to live in the 

wail. country. 

*tLignor, m. to gather Sciscitor, m. p. to in- 

fuel. quire. 

Luctor, d. to wrestle. *Scitor, m. to ask. 

Medicor, r. d. p. to heal. Scrutor, p. to search. 

Meditor, p. to meditate. Solor, d. to comfort. 



Spatior, to walk about. 

Speculor, m. r. d. to 
vieio. 

tStipulor, p. to stipu- 
late. 

tSuavior, d. to kiss. 

Suspicor, to suspect. 

Testor, d. p. to witness. 
So detestor. 

Tutor, d. to defend. 

Vagor, to wayider. 

Veneror, d. p. to wor- 
ship. 

Venor, m. to hunt. 

Versor, to be employed. 

Vociferor, to bawl. 



124 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [2 CONJ, 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 

§ 167. Verbs of the second conjugation end in eo. The 
second and third roots, instead of ev and et, commonly end in 
u and it ; as, moneo, monm, monitw7?z. 

The following list contains most verbs so conjugated, and 
also some which want the second and third roots : — 



*Aceo, to he sour. 
*Albeo, — , to be u-hite. 
*Arceo, d. to drive away. 

coerceo, d. to re- 
strain. 

exerceo,r. d. to exer- 
cise. 
*Areo, to he dry. 
*Aveo, — , to covet. 
*Caleo, r. to he rearm. 
*Calleo, — , to he hard. 

*percalleo, to he 
hardened. 
*Calveo, — , to he hald. 
*Candeo, to he white. 
*Caneo, to he hoary. 
*Careo, r. d. to want. 
*Ceveo, — , to fawn. 
*Clareo, to he bright. 
*Clueo, — , to be famous. 
*Denseo, — , to thicken. 
*Diribeo, — , to distri- 
bute. 
*Doleo, r. d. to grieve. 
*Egeo, r. to want. 
*Emineo, to rise above. 
*Flacceo, to wither. 
*Flaveo, — ,to be yellow. 
*Floreo, to flourish. 
*Fceteo, — , to be fetid. 
*Frigeo, — , to be cold. 
*Frondeo, — , to bear 

leaves. 
Habeo, r. d. to have. 

So ad-, ex-, pro-hi- 
beo. 

cohibeo, d. to re- 
strain. 



inhibeo,d. to hinder. 

*tperhibeo, d. to re- 
port. 

tpostliabeo, to post- 
pone. 

prrebeo, r. d. to af- 
ford. 

debeo, r. d. to owe. 
*Hebeo, — , to be dull. 
*Horreo, d. to be rough. 
*Humeo, — , to be moist. 
*Jaceo, r. to lie. 
*Lacteo, — , to suck. 
*Langueo, to languish. 
*Lateo, to lie hid. 
*Lenteo, — , to be slow. 
*Liceo, to be valued. 
*Liveo, — , to he livid. 
*Maeeo, — , to he lean. 
*Madeo, to he wet. 
Mereo, r to deserve. 

tcommereo, to de- 
serve. 

tdemereo, d. to earn. 

temereo, to merit. 

*tpermereo, to serve 
in war. 

promereo, to deserve. 
*Mcereo, — , to grieve. 
Moneo, r. d. to advise. 

admoneo, m. r. d. to 
admonish. 

commoneo, to warn. 

praemoneo, to fore- 
warn. 
*Muceo, — , to he 



*Niteo, to shine. 

Noceo, m. r. to hurt. 

*01eo, to smell. 

*Palleo, to he pale. 

*Pareo, ra. r. d. to obey. 

*Pateo, to be open. 

Placeo, to please. 

*Polleo, — , to be able. 

*Puteo, to be nauseous 

*Putreo, to be putrid. 

*P-enideo, — , to glitter. 

*Rigeo, to be stiff. 

*Rubeo, to be red. 

*Scateo, — , to overflow. 

*Sileo. d. to be silent. 

*Sordeo, to be filthy. 

*Splendeo, — , to shine. 

*Squaleo, to be foul. 

*Strideo, — , to creak. 

*Studeo, d. to study. 

*Stupeo, to be amazed. 

Taceo, r. d. to be silent. 

*Tepeo. to be warm. 

Terreo, d. to terrify. 
So deterreo, to deter. 
tabsterreo, to deter. 
tconterreo, ^ to 
texterreo, > fright' 
tperterreo, ) en, 

*Timeo, d. to fear. 

*Torpeo, to be torpid. 

*Tumeo, to swell. 

*Vaieo, r. to be able. 

* Vegeo, — , to be strong. 

*Vieo, — , to hind. 

*Vigeo, to he strong. 

*Vireo, to be green. 

*Uveo, — , to be moist. 



mouldy. 
f Nigreo, to be black. 

§ 168. The following list contains those verbs of the sec- 
ond conjugation which do not form their second and third roots 
in u and it, including those which form them regularly in ev 
and et. 

Note. Some verbs of this conjugation are irregular in the second and 
third roots, in consequence of imitating the common forms of the third 
conjugation. 



§169. 2cONJ.l VERBS. SECOND 4ND THIRD ROOTS. 125 



Aboleo, -evi, -Ttum, r. d. to efface. 

*Algeo, alsi, to be cold. 

Ardeo, arsi, arsuin, r. to burn. 

Audeo, ausus sura. (ausi,rare,w hence 
ausim, § 183, R. J,) r. d. to dare. 

Augeo, auxi, auctum, r. d. to in- 
crease, [ware. 

Caveo, cavi,-cautum, m. d. to bc- 

Censeo, censui, censura, d. to think. 
recenseo, -ui, -um or -Ituin. 
*percenseo, -ui. 
*succenseo, -ui, d. 

Cieo, civi, citum, to excite. The per- 
fect civi seems to come from cio, 
of the fourth conjugation. 

Compleo, -evi, -etum, to fill. So 
the other compounds of pleo. 

*Conniveo, -nivi, to wink at. 

jt)eleo, -evi, -etum, d. to blot out. 

Doceo, docui, doctum, d. to teach. 

*Faveo, favi, fauturus, to favor. 

*Ferveo, ferbui, to boil. It is some- 
times of the third conjugation. 

Fleo. flevi, fletum, r. d. to weep. 

Foveo, fovi, fotura, d. to cherish. 

Frendeo, — , fressum or fresum, to 
gnash. 

*Fulgeo. fulsi. to shine. 

Fulgo, of the third conjugation, 
is also in use. 

Gaudeo, gavlsus sum, r. to rejoice. 

•Hse-reo, lisesi, haesurus, to stick. 

Indurgeo, indulsi, indultum, r. d. to 
imLulgii. 

Jubeo, jussi, jussuih, r. d. to order. 

*Luceo, luxi, to shine. 

polluceo, -luxi, -luctum. 

*Lugeo, luxi, d. to mourn. 
.*Maneo, mansi, inausum, m. r. d. to 
remain. 



Misceo, miscui, mistum or mixtum, 

misturas, d. to mix. 
Mordeo, momprdi, morsum, d. to 

bite. — Remordeo, -di, -morsum, r. 
Moveo, movi, motum, r. d. to move. 
Mulceo, mulsi, mulsum, d. to soothe. 
*Mulgeo, mulsi or mulxi, to milk. 
Neo, ncvi, netum, to spin. 
*Paveo, pavi, d. to fear. [deo, — . 

*Pendeo, pependi, to hang. *impen- 

pi-opendeo, — , propensum. 
Pleo, (obsolete.) See compleo. 
Prandeo, prandi, pransum, r. to dine. 
Rideo, risi, risum, m. r. d. to laugh. 
*Sedeo, sedi, sessum, m. r. to sit. 

The compounds change e into i. 

*dissideo, -sedi. So praosideo, 
*$eneo, senui, to be old. 
Soleo, solitus sum or solui, to be aC' 

customed. 
*Sorbeo, sorbui, to suck in. 

*absorbeo, -sorbui or -sorpsi. 
Spondee, spopondi, sponsum, to 

promise. 
Suadeo, suasi, suasum, v.A.to advise. 
Teneo, tenui, tentum, r. d. to hold. 

The compounds change e into i. 

*att!neo, -tinui. So pertineo. 
Tergeo, tersi, tersuni, to wipe. 

Tergo, of the third conjugation, 
is alsj in rise. 
Tondeo, — , tonsum, to shear. The 

compounds have the perfect tondi. 
Torque©, torsi, tortum, d. to ttoist. 
Torre©, torrui, tostum, to roast. 
*Turgeo, tursi, to swell. 
*Urgeo or virgueo, ursi, d. to urge. 
Video, vidi, visum, m. u. r. d. to see. 
Voveo, vovi, votum, d. to voio. 



§169. Impersonal Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 



Decet, decuit, it becomes. 

Libet, libuit or libitum est. it 

pleases. 
Licet, licuit or licitum est, it is law- 

ful. 
Liquet, liqmt, it is clear 
Miseret, miseruit or miseritum est, 

it pities. 
Oportet, oportuit, it behoves. . 



Piget, piguit or pig! turn est, d. it 

grieves. 
Poemtet, poenituit, poeniturus, d. it 

repents. 
Pudet, puduit or pudltum est, d. it 

shames. 
Ttedet, teeduit or taesum est, it 

wearies. 

So pertasdet. 



PjfoTE. Lubet, &c, are sometimes written for libet, &c, especially in 
tlie comic writers. 

11 * 



I2(J 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 CONJ. 



§ 170. Deponent Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 

r, fassus, r. d. to confess. *Medcor, d. to cure. 

The compounds change a into i. Mereor, merltus, to deserve. 

confiteor, confessus, d. p. to ac- Misereor, miseritus or misertus, to 

Ln mcl edge. pity. 

*tdiffiteor, to deny. Polliceor, pollicltus, p. to promise. 

profiteor, professus, d. p. to de- Reor, ratus ; to think. 

dare. Tueor, tuitus, d. p. to protect. 

Liceor, licltus, to bid a price. Vereor, verltus, d. to fear. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 

*§> 171. In the third conjugation, when the first root ends 
with a consonant, the second root is formed by adding 5 ; when 
it ends with a vowel, the first and second roots are the same : 
the third root is formed by adding t ; as, carpo, carps*', carp- 
taw ; arguo, argm, arguto*. 

In annexing 5 and t, certain changes occur in the final consonant of 
the root : — 

1. C, g, h, and qu, at the end of the root, form with s the double letter 
x in the 2d root; in the 3d root, c remains, and the others are changed 
into c before tu ; as, rego (regsi), rexi, rectum; ztho, vexi, rectum 
coquo, coxi, coctum. 

Note. lnfluo,fluxi, and struo, sti-uxi, h seems to have been lost in the 
root of the verb. 

2. B is changed into p before s and t ; as, scribo, scrips/,, scriptum. 

3. D and t, before s, are either dropped, or changed into s ; as, 'claudo, 
clavsi ; cedo, cessi. After m, p is sometimes inserted before s and t ; as, 
sumo, sumjisi. R is changed to s before s and t in gero and tiro. 

Some other consonants are dropped, or changed into s, in certain verbs. 

Exc. 1. Many verbs whose first root ends in a consonant, do not add s 
to form the second root. 

(a.) Of these, some have the second root the same as the first ; as, 
Bibo, Excudo, Ico, Mando, Scabo, Solvo, Verro, 

£do, Fodio, Lambo, Prehendo, Scando, Strido, Verto, 

Erao, Fugio, -Lego, Psallo, Sido, Tollo, Volvo; 

to which add the compounds of the obsolete cando,fendo, and nuo. 

(b.) Some make a change in the first root. Of these, some change a 
vov/el, some drop a consonant, some prefix a reduplication, others admit 
two or more of these changes ; as, 

Ago, Facio, Frango, Jacio, Rumpo, Scindo, 

Capio, Findo, Fundo, Linquo, Sisto, Vinco. 

Those which have a reduplication are 

Cado, Curro, Parco, Pendo, Tango, 

Credo, Disco, Pario, Posco, Tendo, 

Cano, Fallo, Pello, Pungo, Tundo. 



3 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND Til HID ROOTS. 127 

Exc. 2. Some add u to the root of the- verb; as, 
Alo, Consalo, Greiao, llapio, Tremo, 

Colo, Depso, Geno, {pbs.) Strepo, Yolo, 

Compesco, Fremo, Molo, Tezo, Vomo. 

Mcto and pono add su, with a change in the root. 

Exc. 3. The following add \v. — 

Arcesso, Cupio, Lacesso, Iludo, 

Capesso, Incesso, Peto, Qumro, with a change of r into s. 

Exc. 4. The following add v, with a change in the root; those in sco 
dropping sc : — 

Cresco, Pasco, Scisco, Lino, Sino, Sterno, 

Nosco, Quiesco, Cerno, Sero, Sperno, Tero. 

Exc. 5. The 3d roots of verbs whose root ends in d or t, add s, in- 
stead of t, to the root, either dropping those letters, or changing them 
into 5; as, claudo, clausula; defendo, defensum ; ccdo, ccssum. But the 
compounds of do add Uu. 

The following, also, add s, with a change of the root : — 

Excello, Fallo, Pello, Spargo, Vcrro. 

Peicello, Mergo, Premo, Velio, 

Exc. 6. The following add if, with a change of the root : — 
Cerno, Fingo, Gero, Sero, Sperno, Stringo, Uro, 

Colo, Frango, Rumpo, Sisto, Sterno, Tero, Vinco; 

to which add those in sco, with the 2d root in v ; these drop sc before £, 

except pasco, which drops c only. 

Exc. 7. The following have U : — 

Bibo, Molo, Pono, xoilh a change of n into s. 

Geno, (ohs.) Vomo, 

The following have it : — 

Arcesso, Cupio, Peto, 

Facesso, Lacesso, Quaoro, with a change of r into s. 

. Some other irregularities occur in this conjugation. 

<§> 172. The following list contains both the regular and 
irregular formations of the second and third roots in the third 
conjugation : — 

Acuo, acui, acutum, d. to sharpen. *Batuo, batui, d. to heat. 

Ago, egi, actum, r. d. to drire. Bibo, bibi, bibitum, d. to drink. 

Su cireumago, coiro, and perago. *Cado, cecldi, casurus, to fall. Tlie 
*ambigo, — , to doubt. Sosatago. compounds change a into i, 

The other compounds change and drop the reduplication. 

a into i. See § Icii). 2. occido. -cidi, -casum, r. to set. 

*prodigo, -egi, to squander. Ca;do, cecidi, cassum, r. d. to cut. 
Alo, alui, allium or altum, d. to The compounds change m into 

nourish. I, and drop the rcduplica- 

*Ango, anxi, to strangle. tioti. 

Arguo, argui, argutum, d. to convict. From candeo, of the second con- 

Arcesso, -cessivi, -cessitum, r. d. to jugation, is formed 

call for. Pass. inf. arcessiri or accendo, -cendi, -censum, d. to 

arcessi. 



128 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 (JONJ. 



kindle. So the other com- 
pounds. 
*Cano, ceclni, d. to sing. The com- 
pounds change a into i. 
*concino, -cinui. So occino, 

praecino. 
*accTno, — . So incino, interclno, 
succlno, recino. 
*Capesso, -Ivi, r. d. to undertake. 
Capio, cepi, captum, r. d. to take. 
The compounds change a into i. 
Carpo, carpsi, carptum, d. to pluck. 

The compounds change a into e. 
Cedo,cessi, cessum, r. to yield. 
Cello, (obsolete.) 

excello, -cellui, -celsum, to excel. 
*antecello, — , So prsecello, re- 
cello. 
peroel]o,-culi, -culsum,fo strike. 
Cerno, crevi, cretum, d. to decree. 
Cerno, to see, has no second or 
third root. 
Cingo, cinxi, cinctum, d. to gird. 
*ClangOj — , to clang. 
Claudo, clausi, clausum, r. d. to shut. 
The compounds change au into u. 
*tClepo, clepsi, or clepi, to steal. 
Colo, colui, cultum, d. to till. 

tocculo, -cului, -cultum, d. to hide. 
Coiro, corapsi, comptum, to deck. 
*Compesco, -pescui, to restrain. 
Consulo, -sului, -sultum, m. r. d. to 

consult. 
Coquo, coxi, coctum, m. d. to cook. 
Credo, ere dldi, ere di turn, r. d. to be- 
lieve. 
*Cresco, crevi, to grow. 

concresco, -crevi, -cretum. 
Cubo is of the first conjugation. 
*accumbo, -cubui, to lie dozen. 
So the other compounds which 
*Cudo, — , to forge. [insert in. 

excudo,-cudi,-cusum, d. to stamp. 
Cupio, cupivi, cupitum, d. to desire. 
*Curro, cucurri, cursurus, to run. 
Concurro, circumcurro, succur- 
ro, and transcurro, drop the 
reduplication ; the other com- 
pounds sometimes drop, and 
sometimes retain it. 
decurro, decurri, decursum. 
*Dego, degi, d. to live, [take away. 
Demo, dempsi, demptum, r. d. to 
TDepso, depsui, depstum, to knead. 
Dico, dixi, dictum, u. r. d. to say. 
*Disco, didlci, disciturus, d. to learn. 



*Dispesco, — , to separate. 

Divldo, divlsi.divisum, r.d. to divide. 

Do is of the first conjugation. 

abdo, -dldi, -dltum, d. to hide. So 

condo, indo. 
addo, -didi, -dltum, r. d. to add. 
So dedo, edo, prodo, reddo, 
trado, vendo. 
tdido, -dldi, -dltum, to divide. So 

abdo, subdo. 
perdo, -dldi, -dltum, m. r. d. ab- 
scondo, -di or -dldi, -ditum or -sum. 
Duco, duxi, ductum,m.r.d. to lead. 
Edo, edi, esum, m. u. r. d. to eat. 
Exuo, exui, exutum, d. to strip off. 
Emo, emi, emptum, r. d. to buy. 
Facesso, -cessi, -cessltum, to execute. 
Facio, feci, factum, m. u. r. d. to do. 
Compounded xcith a preposition, 
it changes a into i, and has a 
regular passive. Compound- 
ed with other icords, it retains 
a when of this conjugation, 
and has the passive, no, fac- 
tus. -See § 160. 
Fallo, fefelli, falsum, d. to deceive. 

*refello, -felli, d. to refute. 
Fendo, (obsolete.) 

defendo, -fendi, -fensum, m. u. r. 

d. to defend. 
offendo, -fendi, -fensum, d. to 
offend. 
Fero, tuli, latum, r. d. to bear. See 
§ 179. A perfect tetuli is rare. 
*suffero, — . 
Fido,— ,fisus, to trust. See § 162. IS. 
confldo,conflsus sum prconfidi, 

to rely on. 
diffldo, difflsus sum, to distrust. 
Figo, fixi, fixum,-r. to fix. 
Findo, fidi, fissum, d. to cleave. 
Fingo, finxi, fictum, d. to feign. 
Flecto, flexi, flexum, r. d. to bend. 
*Fligo, flixi, to dash. So conillgo. 
affllgo, -flixi, -flictum, to afflict. 

So infllgo. 
profllgo is of the fir st conjugation. 
Fluo, fluxi, fluxum, r. to flow. 
Fodio, fodi, fossum, d. to dig. 
Frango, fregi, fractum, r. d. to break. 

The compounds change a into i. 
*Fremo, fremui, d. to roar. 
Frendo, — , fresum or fressum, to 

gnash. 
Frigo, frixi, frictum or frixum, to 
roast. 



3 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



129 



*Fugio, fugi, fugiturus, d. to flee. 
Fundo, fudi, fusum, r. d. to pour 
*Furo, — , to rage. 
*Gemo, gemui, d. to groan. 
Gigno, {obsolete geno,) genui, geni- 

tum, r. d. to beget. 
*Glisco, — , to grow. 
*Glubo, — , to jjeel. 

deglabo, — , -gluptum. 
Gruo, (obsolete.) [ingruo. 

*congruo, -grui, to agree. So 
Gero, gessi, gestum, r. d. to bear. 
Jacio, jeci, jactum, d. to cast. The 

compounds change a into i. 
Ico, ici. ictum, r. to strike. 
Imbuo,imbui, imbatum, d. to imbue. 
*Incesso, -cesslvi, or -cessi to attack. 
tlnduo, indui, indatum, to put on. 
Jungo, junxi, junctum, r. d. to join. 
Lacesso, -cesslvi, -cessltum, r. d. to 

provoke. 
Lacio, (obsolete.) Tlte compounds 
change a into i. 

allicio, -lexi, -lectum, d. to allure. 
So illicio, pellicio. 

elicio, -licui, -licitum, to draw out. 
Laedo, lresi, laesum, m. r. to hurt. The 

compounds change ae into i. 
"Lambo, Iambi, to lick. 
Lego, legi, lectum, r. d. to read. So 
allego, perlego, prselego, rele- 
go, sublego, and translego; 
the other compounds change e 
into i. 

dillgo, -lexi, -lectum, to love. 

intelllgo, -lexi, -lectum, u. r. d. to 
understand. 

negligo, -lexi, -lectum, r. d. to 
neglect. 
Lingo, — , linctum, d. to lick. 

*delingo, — . 
Lino, livi or levi, litum, d. to daub. 
ft Linquo, liqui, d. to leave. 

relinquo, -liqui, -lictum, r. d. 

delinquo, -liqui, -lictum. So 
derelinquo. 
Ludo, lusi, lusum, m. r. to play. 
*Luo, lui, luiturus, d. to atone. . 

abluo, -lui, -latum, r. d. 

diluo, -lui, -latum, d. So eluo. 
Mando, mandi, mansuia, d. to chexo. 
Mergo, mersi, mersum, r. d. to dip. 
Meto, messui, messum, d. to reap. 
Metuo, metui, metutum, d. to fear. 
*Mingo, minxi, mictum, (sup.) to 

make water. 
Minuo, minui, minutum, d. to lessen. 



Mitto, misi, missum, r. d. to send. 

Molo, molui, 1110)1 turn, to grind. 

Mungo, (obsolete.) \_:i-i[jc. 

emungo, -munxi, -munctum, to 

Necto, nexi, nexum, d. to knit. 

innecto, -nexui, -nexum. So 
annecto, connecto. 

*Nmgo or -guo, ninxi, to snoio. 

Nosco, novi, notum, d to learn. 
agnosco, -novi, -nltum, d. to 

recognize. 
cognosco, -novi, -nltum, u. r. d. 

to know. 
*dignosco, — . So prssnosco. 
ignosco, -novi, -notum, d. to 
pardon. [m. r. to rriarry. 

Nubo, nupsi, or nupta sum, nuptum, 

Nuo, (obsolete.) 

*abnuo, -nui, -nuiturus, d. to re- 
fuse. 
*annuo, -nui. So innuo, renuo. 

Pando, — , passum or pansum, to 
open. So expando. 
dispando, — , -pansum. 

Pago, (obs.) pepigi, pactum, to bar- 
gain. 

Pango,panxi, pactum, pancturus, d. 
to drive in. 
compingo, -pegi, -pactum. So 

impingo. 
*oppango, -pegi. 

*depango, — . So repango, sup- 
pingo. 

*Parco, peperci or parsi, parsurus, 
to spare. 

Pario, peperi, partum, pariturus, d. 
to bring forth. The compounds 
are of the fourth conjugation. 

Pasco, pavi, pastum, m. r. d. to feed. 

Pecto, — , pexum, and pectltum, d. 
to comb. 

Pello, pepuli, pulsum, d. to drive. 
Compounds not reduplicated. 

Pendo, pependi, pensum, r. to weigh. 
The compounds drop the redupli- 
cation. 

Peto,petIvi, petltum, m.u.r. d. to ask. 

Pingo, pinxi, pictum, to paint. 

Pinso, pinsi, pinsitum, pinsum or 
pistum, to grind. 

*Plango, planxi, plancturus, to la- 
ment. 

Plaudo, plausi, plausum, d. to ap- 
plaud. So applaudo. The other 
coynpounds change au into o. 

Plecto, — , plexum, d. to tioinc. 

*Pluo, plui or pluvi, to rain. 



130 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 CONJ. 



Pono, posui, posltum, r. d. to place. 
Pono, and its compounds, ancient- 
ly had poslvi in the perfect. 
*Posco, poposci, d. to demand. 
Prehendo, > ,■ -. . 

Prendo, ' ] ' _SUm ' r ' ' t0 snze - 
Premo,pressi,pressum, r. d. to press. 

The compounds change e into i. 
Promo, prompsi, p romp turn, r. d. to 

bring out. 
•Psallo, psalli, to play on an instru- 
ment. 
Pungo, pupugi, punctum, to prick. 
compungo, -punxi, -punctum. 

So dispungo, expungo. 
interpungo, — , -punctum. 
*repungo, — . 
Quaero, quseslvi, quaesltum, m. r. d. 
to seek. The compounds change 
S3 into i. 
Quatio, — , quassum,fo shake. The 
compounds change qua into 
cu; as, 
concutio, -cussi, -cussum, d. 
discutio, -cussi, -cussum, r. d. 
Quiesco, quievi, quietum,r. d. to rest. 
Rado, rasi, rasum, d. to shave. 
Rapio, rapui, raptum, r. d. to snatch. 
The compounds change a in- 
to i. 
diripio, -ripui, -reptum, m. r. So 
eripio and prseripio. 
Rego, rexi, rectum, r. d. to rule. 
The compounds change e in- 
to i. 
*pergo (for perrigo), perrexi, r. 

to go forward. 
surgo (for surrigo),surrexi, sur- 
rectum, r. d. to rise. 
*Repo, repsi, to creep. 
Rodo, rosi, rosum, r. to gnaw. 

ab-, ar-, e-, ob-, pras-rodc want 
the perfect. 
*Rudo, rudlvi, to bray. 
Rumpo, rupi, ruptum, r. d. to break. 
Ruo, rui, rutum, ruiturus, to fall. 
diruo, -rui, -rutum, d. So obruo. 
*corruo, -rui. So irruo. 
*Sapio, saplvi,to be wise. The com- 
pounds change a into i. 
resipio, -siplvi or -sipui. 
*tScabo, scabi, to scratch. [grave. 
Scalpo, scalpsi, scalptum, to en- 
Salo or sallo, — salsum, to salt. 
*Scando, — , d. to climb. 'Hie com- 
pounds change a into e ; as, 
ascendo, ascendl, ascensum, r. d. 



Scindo, scidi, scissum, d. to cut. 
Scisco, scivi ; scitum, d. to ordain. 
Scribo, scripsi, scriptum, r. d. to 

write. 
Sculpo.sculpsi.sculptum, d. to carve. 
Sero, sevi, satum, r, d. to sow. 

consero, -sevi, -siturn. So inse- 

ro, r., and obsero. 
Sero, — , sertum, to knit. Its com- 
pounds have serui ; as, 

assero, -serui, -sertum, r. d. 
*Serpo, serpsi, to creep. 
*Sido. sidi, to settle. Its compounds 

hare generally sedi, sessum, from 

sedeo. 
*Sino, sivi. siturus, to permit. 

deslno, desivi, desltum, r. 
Sisto, stiti, statu m, to stop. 

*absisto, -stiti. So the other com- 
pounds; but circumsisto wants 
the perfect. 
Solvo, solvi, solutum, r. d. to loose. 
Spargo, sparsi, sparsum, r. d. to 

spread. The compounds change 

a into e. 
Specie, (obsolete.) The compounds 
cltange e into i ; as, 

aspicio, aspexi, aspectum, d. to 
look at. 

inspicio, inspexi, inspectum, r. d. 
Sperno, sprevi, spretum,d. to despise. 
*tSpuo, spui, to spit. 

*respuo, re spui, d. 
Statuo, statui, statutum, d. to place. 

The compounds change a into i. 
Sterno, stravi, stratum, d. to strew. 
*Sternuo, sternui, to sneeze. 
*Sterto, — , to snore. 

*tdesterto, destertui. 
*Stinguo, — , to extinguish. 

distingue, distinxi, distinctum. 
So extinguo, r. d. 
*Strepo, strepui, to make a noise. 
*Strido, stridi, to creak. 
Stringo, strinxi, strictum, r. d. to tie 

hard. 
Struo, struxi, structum, d. to build. 
Sugo, suxi, suctum, to suck. 
Sumo,sumpsi,sumptum, r. d. to take. 
Suo, — . sutum, d. to seio. So consuo, 
dissuo. 

insuo, -sui, sutum 

*assuo, — . 
Tango, tetlgi, tactum, r. d. to touch. 
The compounds change a into 
i, and drop the reduplication. 

contingo, contlgi, contactum, r. 



j 

3 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



131 



Tego, texi, tectum, r. d. to cover. 
'Temno, — , d. to despise. 

contemno, -teinpsi, -temptum, d. 
Tendo, tetendi, tensum or tentum, to 
stretch. The compounds drop 
the reduplication; as, 
extendo, -tendi, -tensum or -ten- 
tum. So in-, os- and re-ten- 
do. 
detendo has tensum. Tfie other 
compounds have tentum. 
*tTergo, tersi, tersum, to wipe. Ter- 
geo, of the second conjugation, has 
the same second and third roots. 
Tero, trivi, tritum, d. to rub. 
Texo, texui. textum, d. to weave. 
Tingo or tinguo, tinxi, tinctum, r. d. 

to tinge. 
'Tollo, tolli, d. to raise. 

sustollo, sustuli, sublatum, r. to 

take away. 
*attollo, — . So extollo. 
Traho, traxi, tractum, r. d. to draw. 
*Tremo, tremui, d. to tremble. 
Tribuo, tribui, tributum, r. d. to 

ascribe. 
Trudo, trusi, trusum, to thrust. 



Tundo, tutudi, tunsum or tusum, to 
beat. The compounds drop the 
reduplication, and have tusum. 
Yet detunsum, obtunsum, and 
retunsum, arc also found. 

Ungo, unxi, unctum, d. to anoint. 

Uro, ussi, ustum, d. to burn. 

*Vado, — ,togo. Sosupervado. TJte 
other compounds have vasi; as, 
*evado, evasi, r. So pervado ; 
also invado, r. d. 

Veho, vexi, vectum, r. to carry. 

Velio, velli or vulsi, vulsum,d.^/>u/Z. 
So avello, d., divello, evello, d., 

revello, revelli, revulsum. 
The other compounds have velli 
only, except interveilo, which 
has vulsi. 

*Vergo, versi, to incline. 

Verro, — versum, d. to brush. 

Verto, verti, versum, r. d. to turn. 
See § 174, Note. 

Vinco, vici, victum, r. d. to conquer. 

*Viso, — , d. to visit. 

*Vivo, vixi, victurus, d. to live. 

Volvo, volvi, volutum, d. to roll. 

Vomo,vomui,vomitum, r. d. to vomit. 



Inceptive Verbs. 

<§> 173, Inceptive verbs in general want the third root, 
and their second root, when used, is the same as that of their 
primitives. Of those derived from nouns and adjectives, some 
want the perfect, and some form it by adding ui to the root of 
the primitive. See § 187, II. 2. 

In the following list, those verbs to which s is added, have a simple verb 
in use from which they are formed : — 



*Acesco, acui, s. to grow sour. 

*iEgresco, to grow sick. 

*Albesco, — , s. to grow while. 

*Alesco, — , s. to grow. 

coalesco, -alui, -allium, to grow 
together. 

"Ardesco, arsi, s. to take fire. 

*Aresco, — , s. to grow dry. 

*exaresco, -arui. So inaresco, 
peraresco. 

*Augesco, auxi, s. to increase. 

*Calesco, calui, s. to groio warm. 

*Calvesco, — , s. to become bald. 

*Candesco, candui, s. to grow tohite. 

*Canesco, canui, s. to become hoa- 
ry. 



*Claresco, clarui, s. to become bright. 
*Condormisco, -dormlvi, s. to go to 

sleep. 
*Conticesco, -ticui, to become silent. 
*Crebresco, -crebui and crebrui, to 

increase. 
*Crudesco, crudui, to become raw. 
*Ditesco, — , to groio rich. 
*Dulcesco, — , to grow sweet. 
*Duresco, durui, to grow hard. 
*Evilescp, evilui, to become icorth- 

less. 
*Extimesco, -timui, to be afraid. 
*Fatisco, — , to gape. 
*Flaccesco, flaccid, s. to grow 

weak 



132 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 CONJ 



"Fervesco, ferbui, b. to grow warm. 

"Floresco, florui, s. to begin to flour- 
ish. 

"Fraceaco, frocui, to grata mouldy. 

"Frigesco, — , b. to grow cold. 

'perfrigesco, -l'nxi. Ho refri- 
gesco. 

•Frondesco, — , s. to put forth leaves. 

"Fruticeseo, — , to put forth fruit. 

"Geiasco, — , s. to freeze. 

"congelasco, -avi, s. to congeal. 

"GemisCO, — , s. to groan. 

"Gemmasco, — . to bud. 

"Genexasco, — , s. to be produced, 
"i J-randesco, — , to grow large. 

*GraveSCO, — , to grow heir:/. 

*i [ceresco, bresi, s. to adhere. 

*l [ebesco, — , s. to grow dull. 

"Horresco, horrui, s. to groio rough. 

*l [umesco, — , s. to grow moist. 

"Jgnesco, — , to take fire. 

"Indolesco, -dolui, d. to be grieved. 

*Insolesco. — , to become haughty. 

*Integrasco, — , to be renewed. 

*Juvenescoj — , to grow young. 

"Languesco, langui, s. to grow Ian- 
guid. 

"Lapidesco, — , to become stone. 

'Latesco, — , to grow broad. 

*Latesco, latui, to be concealed, s. So 
delitesco, -litui ; oblitesco, -litui. 

"JLentesco, — , to become soft. 

*Liquesco, — , s. to become liquid. 
*deliquesco, -licui. 

*Lucesco, luxi, s. to grow light. 

*Lutesco, — , s. to become muddy. 

*Macesco, — , s. ) . , 

•Macresco, -, \to grow lean. 
*remacresco, -macrui. 

*Madesco, madui, s. to grow moist. 

*MarcescOj marcui, s. to pine away. 

*Maturesco, maturui, to ripen. 

*Miseresco, miserui, s. to pity. 

*. Mil csco, — , to grow mild. 

*Mollesco, — , to grow soft. 

*Mutesco, — , to become silent. 
*obmutesco, obmului. 

*Nigresco, nigrui, s. to grow black. 

* Nitesco, nitui, s. to grow bright. 

*Notesco, notui, to become known. 

"Obbrutesco, — , to become brutish. 

"Obcallesco, -callui, to become cal- 
lous. 

*Obdormisco, -dormlvi, s. to fall 

asleep. 

l *Obsurdesco, -surdui, to grow deaf. 
'Olesco, (scarcely used.) 



abolesco, -olevi, -olltum, p. to 

cease. 

adulesco, -olevi, -ultum, s. to 
grow up. 

exoleaco, -olevi, -oletum, to grow 
old. So obsolesco. 

*inok'sco, -olevi, d. to increase. 
"Pallesco, pallui, s. to grow pale. 
*Patesco, patui, s. to be open. 
*Pavesco, pavi, s. to grow fearful. 
"Pertimesco, -timui, d. to fear 

greatly. 
*Pinguesco, — , to grow fat. 



Tubesco, 



to come to maturity. 



*Puerasco, — , to become a boy. 
*Putesco, putui, «. ) to become pu- 
*Putresco, putrui, s. ) trid. 

*Raresco, — , to become thin. 
*Rig»sco, rigui, s. to grow cold. 
*Rubesco, rubui, s. to grow red. 

*erubesco, -rubui, d. 
*R.esipisco, -sipui, s. to recover wis- 

dom. 
*Sanesco, — , to become sound. 

*consanesco, -sanui. 
*Senesco, senui, s.d. to groio old. So 

consenesco. 
*Sentisco, sensi, s. to perceive. 
*Siccesco, — , to become dry. 
*Silesco, silui, s. to grow silent. 
*Solidesco, — , to become solid. 
*Sordesco, sordui, s. to become filthy. 
*Splendesco, splendui, s. to become 

bright. 
*Spumesco, — , to foam. 
*Sterilesco, — , to become barren. 
*Stupesco, stupui, s. to be aston- 
ished. 
Suesco, suevi, suetum, s. to become 

accustomed . 
*Tabesco, tabui, s. to waste away. 
*Teneresco and -asco, to become 

tender. 
*Tepesco, tepui, s. to groio icarm. 
*Torpesco, torpui, %. to groio torpid 
*Tremisco, tremui, s. to begin to 

tremble. 
*Tumesco, tumui, s. to be inflated. 
*Turgesco, tursi, s. to swell. 
*Vnlesco, valui, s. to become strong. 
*Vanesco, — , to vanish. 

*evanesco, evanui. 
*Veterasco, veteravi, to grow old. 
*Viresco, virui, s. to grow green. 
*Vivesco, vixi, s to come to life. 

rcvivisco, -vixi. 
*Uvesco, — , to become moist 



4 CONJ.] VERBS SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



i:3:J 



§ 174. Deponent Verbs of the Third Conjugation. 



Apiscor, aptus, to get. Tlic com- 
pounds change a into i. 
■dipiscor, adeptua. So indipiscor. 

Expergiscor, experrectus, to awake. 

Faiiscor, i. The compounds change 
a into e. [d. to enjoy. 

Fruor, fruTtus or fructus, fniiturus, 

Fungor, functus, r. d. to perform. 

Graaior, gressus, to proceed. 'The 
compounds change a into ej 
85, aggredior, aggressus, r. d. 

*Irascor, to be angry. 

Labor, lapsus, r. to 'full. 

"Liquor, to melt,Jloio. 

Loquor, locutus, r. d. to speak. 

Miniscor, (obsolete.) 

comminiscor, commentus, p. to 

invent. 
*reminiscor, to remember. 

Morior, (mori, rarely morlri,) mor- 
tuus, moriturus, d. to die. 

Nanciscor, nactus or nanctus to ob- 
tain. 



Nascor, natua, nasciturus, u. to bt 

burn. 
Nitor, uixus or nisus, nisurus, lo 

lean upon. 

Obliviscor, oblitus, d. to forgrt 

Paciseor, paotus, d. to bargain 
Compound depeciscor. 

Patior, passua, r. d. to suffer. 
perpetior, -pessus. 

From pfecto, to twine, 
amplector, amplexus, d. p. to 

< mbrace. 
complector, complexus, p. So 
circumplector. 

Proficiscor, profectus, r. to depart. 

Queror, questus, 111. u. d. to com- 
plain. 

*Ringor, to grin. 

Sequor, secatus, r. d. to follow. 

Tuor, tutus, to protect. 

*Vescor, d. to eat. 

Ulciscor, ultus, m. d. p. to avenge 

Utor, usus, r. d. to use. 



Note. Devertor, prarvcrtor, revcrtor, compounds of vcrto, are used as 
deponents in the present and imperfect tenses; revcrtor also, sometimes, 
in the perfect. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

<§. 175. Verbs of the fourth conjugation regularly form 
their second root in iv, and the third in it; as, audio, audivt, 
auditzim. 

The following list contains most regular verbs of this conju- 
gation : — 



Audio, -Ivi or -ii, m. u. r. d. to hear. 
*Cio, civi, to excite. 
Condio, -Ivi or -ii, to season. 
Custodio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to keep. 
*Dormio, -Ivi or -ii, m. r. d. to sleep. 
Erudio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to instruct. 
Expedio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to disentangle. 
Finio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to finish. 
*Gestio, -Ivi or -ii, to desire. 
Impedio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to entangle. 
Insanio, -Ivi or -ii, to be mad. 
Irretio, -Ivi or -ii, to ensnare. 
Lenio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to mitigate. 
Mollio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to soften. 
*Mugio, -Ivi or -ii, to bellow. 



Munio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to fortify. 
Mutio, -Ivi, to mutter. 
Nutrio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to nourish. 
Partio, -Ivi or -ii, r. to divide. 
Polio, -Ivi, d. to polish. 
Punio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to jninish. 
Redimio, -Ivi, to rrown. 
Sarrio, -Ivi, d. to weed. 
Scio, -ivi, u. r. to know. 
Servio, -Ivi or -ii, in. r. d. to serve. 
Sopio, -ivi or -ii, to lull asleep. 
Stabiho, -Ivi or -ii, to establish. 
Tinnio, -Ivi or -ii, r. to tinkle. 
Vestio, -Ivi or -ii, to clothe. 



134 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [4 CONJ. 



§ 176. The following list contains those verbs of the j 
fourth conjugation which form their second and third roots 
irregularly, and those which want either or both of them : — 



Amicio, — , amictum, d. to clothe. 

*Balbutio, — , to stammer. 

Bullio, — , to boil. 

*Ceecutio, — , to be dim-sighted. 

*Cambio, — , to exchange. 

*Dementio, — , to be mad. 

EfFutio, — , to speak foolishly. 

Eo, ivi or ii, Itum, a r.d.fo go. The com- 
pounds have only ii in the perfect, 
except obeo, praseo, and subeo, 
lohich have ivi or ii. Ml the 
compounds want the supine and 
perfect participles, except adeo, 
ambio,ineo, obeo, prastereo, sub- 
eo, circumeo, redeo, and transeo. 

Farcio, farsi, farctum, to cram. 

Fasti dio, -ii, -Itum, d. to disdain. 

*Ferio, — , d. to strike. 

*Ferocio, — , to be fierce. 

Fulcio, fulsi, fultum, d. to prop. 

*Gannio, — , to yelp. 

*Glocio, — , to cluck. 

*Glutio, glutii, to swalloic. 

*Grunmo ; grunnii, to grunt. 

Hauno, hausi, haustum, hausturus, 
hausurus, d. to draw. 

*Hinnio, — , to neigh. 

*Ineptio, — , to trifle. 

*Lascivio, lascivii, to be wanton. 

*Ligurio, ligurii, to feed delicately. 

*Lippio, — , r. to be blear-eyed. 

*Obedio, obedii, r. to obey. 

Pario is of the third conjugation, 
but its compounds are of the 
fourth. 



aperio. aperui, apertum, r. d. to 
open. So operio, d. 

comperio, comperi, compertum, 
to find out. So reperio, r. d. 
Pavio, — , to beat. 
*Prurio, — , to itch. 
Queo, quivi or quii, to be able. So 

nequeo. 
*Rugio, — , to roar. 
Saevio, saevii, Itum,r. to rage. 
*Sagio, — , to foresee. 
*Salio, salui or salii, to leap. Tlie 
compounds change a into i. 

*absilio, — . So circumsilio. 

*assilio, -ui. So dissilio, insilio. 

*desilio, -ui or -ii. So exsilio, re- 
silio, subsilio. 

*transilio, -ui or -ivi, d. So pro- 
silio. 
Sancio, sanxi, sancltum or sanctum, 

d. to ratify. 
Sarcio, sarsi, sartura, d. to patch. 
*Scaturio, — , to gush out. 
Sentio, sensi, sensum, r. to feel, 
Sepelio, sepelivi or -ii, sepultum, r. 

d. to bury. 
Sepio, sepsi, septum, d. to hedge in. 
*Singultio, — , to sob. 
*Sitio, sitii, to thirst. 
Sumo, -ii, -Itum, d. to fumigate. 
*Tussio, — , to cough. 
*Vagio, vagii, to cry. 
*fVeneo, venii, r. to be sold. 
Venio, veni, ventum, r. to come. 
Vincio, vinxi, vinctum, r. d. to bind. 



Note. Desiderative verbs want both the second and third roots, ex- 
cept these three ; — esurio, -ivi, r. to desire to eat ; *nupturio, -ivi, to desire 
to marry ; *parturio, -ivi, to be in travail. See § 187, II. 3. 
a This is the neuter gender of the perfect participle. 



$ 1 77. Deponent Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. 



Assentior, assensus, r. d. p. to assent. 
Blandior, blandltus, to flatter. 
Experior, expertus, r. d. to try. 
Largior, largitus, p. to lavish. 
Mentior, mentitus, r. to lie. 
Metior, mensus, d. to measure. 
Molior, molltus, d. to move a mass. 



Opperior, oppertus or opperitus, d. 

to wait for. 
Ordior, orsus, d. p. to begin. 
Orior, ortus, oriturus, d. to spring up. 

Except in the^present infinitive, 

this verb seems to be of the third 

conjugation. 



§178. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 135 



Partior, partltus, d. to divide. subjunctive are sometimes of the 

Potior, potltus, r. d. to obtain. TJie third conjvgation in the poets, 

present indicative and imperfect Sortior, sortltus, r. to cast lots. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

<§> 178. Irregular verbs are such as deviate from the 
common forms in some of the parts derived from the first 
root. 

They are sum, voh,fero, edo,jio, eo, queo, and their compounds. 

Sum and its compounds have already been conjugated. See § 153. In 
the conjugation of the rest, the parts which are irregular are fully 
exhibited, and a synopsis of the other parts is, in general, given. Some 
parts of volo and its compounds are wanting. 

1. Volo is irregular only in the present indicative and infini- 
tive, and in the present and imperfect subjunctive. 

It is made irregular partly by syncope, and partly by a change in the 
vowel of the root. In the present infinitive and imperfect subjunctive, 
after e was dropped, r was changed into I. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Per/. Indie. 

Vo'-lo, vel'-le, vol'-u-i, to be willing, to urish. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. vo'-lo, vis, vult ; Per/. vol'-u-i. 

P. vol'-u-mus, vul'-tis, vo'-lunt Plup. vo-lu'-fi-ram. 

Imperf. vo-le'-bam. Fut. per/, vo-lu'-e-ro. 

Put. vo'-lam. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
. Pres. S. ve'-lim, ve'-lis, ve'-lit ; Perf. vo-lu'-e-rim. 

P. ve-li'-mus, ve-li'-tis, ve'-lint. Plup. vol-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf. S. vel'-lem, veV-les, vel'-let ; 

P. vel-le'-mus, vel-le'-tis, vel'-lent. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. vel'-le. Pres. vo'-lens. 

Perf. vol-u-is'-se. 

Note. Volt and voids, for vult and vultis, are found in Plautus and 
other ancient authors. 

2. Nolo is compounded of non and volo. Won drops its 
final n, and volo its v, and the vowels (o o) are contracted into 6. 



136 IRREGULAR VERBS. § l^S. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Per/. Indie. 

No'-lo, nol'-le, nol'-u-i, to he unwilling. 

INDICATIVE. 
Pres. S. no'-lo, non'-vis, non'-vult ; Per/. nol'-u-L 

P. nol'-ii-mus, non-vul'-tis, no'-hmt. Plup. no-lu'-e-ram. 
Imperf. no-le'-bam. Put. per/, no-lu'-e-ro. 

Put. no'-lam. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. no'-lim, no'-lis, no'-lit ; Per/, no-lu'-e-rim. 

P. no-li'-mus, no-li'-tis, no'-lint. Plup. nol-u-is'-sem, 

Imperf. S. nol'-lem, nol'-les, noF-let ; 

P. nol-le'-mus, nol-le'-tis, nol'-lent 

IMPERATIVE. 
S. 2. no'-li, or no-li'-to ; P. 2. no-li'-te, or nol-i-to'-te. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. nol'-le. Pres. no'-lens. 

Per/, nol-u-is'-se. 

Note. JYezris and nevolt, for nonvis and non-cult, occur in Plautus. 

3. Malo is compounded ofmagis and volo. In composition, 
magis drops its final syllable, and volo its v. The vowels {a 6) 
are then contracted into a. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indie. 

Ma'-lo, mal'-le, mal'-u-i, to be more willing. 

INDICATIVE. 
Pres. S. ma'-lo, ma'-vis, ma'-vult ; -Per/*. mal'-u-i. 

P. mal'-ii-mus, ma-vul'-tis, ma'-lunt. Plup. ma-lu'-e-ram. 
Imperf. ma-le'-bam. Put. perf. ma-lu'-e-ro. 

Fut. ma'-l-am. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. ma'-lim, ma' -lis, ma'-lit ; Perf. ma-lu'-e-rim. 

P. ma-li'-mus, ma-li'-tis, ma'-lint. Plup. mal-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf. S. mal'-lem, mal'-les, mal'-let; 

P. mal-le'-mus, mal-le'-tis, mal'-lent. 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres. mal'-le. Perf. mal-u-is'-se. 

Note. Mavolo, mavolam, mavelim, and mavellem, for malo, malam. 
&c, occur in Plautus. 



§ 179, 180. 



IRREGULAR VERES. 



137 



§ 179. Fero is irregular in two respects: — 1. its second 
and third roots are not derived from the first : — 2. in the 
present infinitive active, and in the imperfect subjunctive, and 
certain parts of the present indicative and imperative, of both 
voices, the connecting vowel is omitted. In the present infini- 
tive passive, r is doubled. 



ACTIVE VOICE 




PASSIVE VOICE. 


Pres. Indie Fe'-ro, (to 


bear.) 


Pres. Indie, fe'-ror, (to be borne.) 


Pres. Infin. fer'-re, 




Pres. Infin. fer'-ri, 


Perf. Indie, tu'-li, 




Perf. Part, la'-tus. 


Supine. la'-tum. 








INDICATIVE. 


Pres. S. fe'-ro, 




Pres. S. fe'-ror, 


fers, 




fer'-ris or -re, 


fert ; 




fer'-tur ; 


P. fer'-i-mus, 




P. fer'-I-mur, 


fer'-tis, 




fe-rim'-I-ni, 


fe'-runt. 




fe-run'-tur. 


Imp erf. fe-re'-bam. 




Imperf. fe-re'-bar. 


Fut. fe'-ram. 




Fut. fe'-rar. 


Perf. tu'-li. 




Perf. la'-tus sum or fu'-i. 


Plup. tu'-le-ram. 




Plup. la'-tus e'-ram or fu'-g-ram. 


Fut. perf. tu'-le-ro. 




Fut. perf. la'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Pres. fe'-ram. 




Pres. fe'-rar. 


Imperf. fer'-rem. 




Imperf. fer'-rer. 


Perf. tu'-le-rim. 




Perf. la'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim. 


Plup. tu-lis'-sem. 


IMPE 


Plup. la'-tus es -sem or fu-is'sem 
ElATIVE. 


S. fer, or fer'-to, 




S. fer'-re, or fer'-tor, 


fer'-to ; 




fer'-tor , 


P. fer'-te, or fer-to'-te, 




P. fe-rim'-i-ni, 


fe-run'-to. 




fe-run'-tor. 



Pres. fer'-re. 
Perf t.u-lis'-se. 
Fut la-tu'-rus es' 



Pres. fe'-rens. 
Fut. la-tu'-rus. 

GERUND. 

fe-ren'-di, &c. 



INFINITIVE. 

Pres. 

Perf. 
Fut. 

PARTICIPLES. 



fer'-ri. 

la'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se. 

la'-tum i'-ri. 



Perf 
Fut. 



la'-tus. 
fe-ren'-dus. 



SUPINES. 
Former, la'-tum. | Latter, la'-tu. 

§ 180. Fio has the meaning of the passive voice, though 
the Darts formed from theirs* root, except the present infinitive 
12* 



138 IRREGULAR VERBS. § 181, 182. 

and the participle in dus, have the terminations of the active. 
In its other parts, it has passive terminations. It is used as 
the passive voice of facto, which has no regular passive. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Infill. Per/. Part. 

Fi'-o, fi'-e-ri, fac'-tus, to be made or to become. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. fi'-o, fis, fit ; Per/. fac'-tus sum or fu'-i. 

P. fi'-mus, fi'-tis, fi'-unt. Plup. fac'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram. 

Imperf. fi-e'-bam. Fut. per/, fac'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro. 
Fut. fi'-am. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. fi'-am. Plup. fac'-tus es'-sem or fu-is / - 

Imp. fi'-e-rem. sem. 

Per/, fac'-tus sim or fu'-e-rim. 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

£. fi or fi'-to, fi'-to ; Pres. fi'-e-ri. 

P. fi'-te or fi-to'-te, fi-un'-to. Per/, fac'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se. 

Fut. fac'-tum i'-ri. 

PARTICIPLES. SUPINE. 

Per/, fac'-tus. Latter, fac'-tu. 

Fut, fa-ci-en'-dus. 

Note. The compounds of facio which retain a, have also fio in the 
passive ; as, calefacio, to warm ; passive, caleflo ; but those which change 
a into i form the passive regularly. Yet conkt, defit, and infit. occur. 
See § 183, 12, 13, 14. * * J > J > J > 

$ 181. Edo, to eat, is a regular verb of the third con- 
jugation; but in the present of the indicative, imperative, and 
infinitive moods, and in the imperfect of the subjunctive, 
it resembles, in some of its persons, the same tenses of sum • — 
Thus, 

Tnd. pres. , , est ; , , . 

Subj. imperf. , es'-ses, es'-set ; es-se'-mus, , . 

Imperat. \HZ} ; es '' te ' ' 

Inf. pres. es'-se. 

Ind. pres. pass. , , es'-tur. 

Note. In the present subjunctive, edim, edis, &c.,are found, for tdam, 
edas, &c. 

In the compounds of edo, also, forms resembling those of sum occur. 

<§> 182. Eo is irregular in the parts which, in other verbs, 
are formed from the first root, except the imperfect subjunctive, 



§ 1S3. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 139 

and the present infinitive. In these, and in the parts formed 
from the second and third roots, it is a regular verb of the 
fourth conjugation. 

Note. Eo has no first root, and the parts usually derived from that 
root, consist, in this verb, of terminations only. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. lnjin. Per/. Indie. Per/. Part. 

E'-o, i'-re, i'-vi, i'-tum, logo, 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. e'-o, is, it ; Fut. S. i'-bo, i'-bis, i'-bit ; 

P. i'-mus, i'-tis, e'-unt. P. ib'-i-mus, ib'-l-tis, i'-bunt. 

Imperf. S. i'-bam, i'-bas, i'-bat ; Per/. i'-vi. 

P. i-ba'-mus, i-ba'-tis, Plup. iv'-e-ram. 
i'-bant Put.perf. iv'-e-ro. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. S. e'-ara, e'-as, e'-at ; -Per/I iV-6-rim. 

P. e-a/-mus, e-a'-tis, e'-ant. Plup. i-vis'-sem. 

Imperf. S. i'-rem, i'-res, i'-ret ; 

P. i-re'-mus, i-re'-tis, i'-rent. 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

& i or i'-to, i'-to ; Pres. V-re. 

P. i'-te or i-to'-te, e-un'-to. -Per/I i-vis'-se. 

Fut. i-tu'-rus es'-se. 

PARTICIPLES. GERUND. 

Pres. i r -ens, (gen. e-un'-tis.) e-un'-di, &c. 

Fut. i-tu'-rus. 

Remarks. 

1. lam, ies, iet, are sometimes found in the future. Istis,issem, and isse, 
are formed by contraction for ivistis, ivissem, and ivisse. See § 162, 7. 

2. In the passive voice are found the infinitive iri, and the third persons 
singular itur,ibdtur,ibitur,itum est, &c; edtur,iretur, eundum est, &c, 
which are used impersonally. 

3. The compounds of eo, including veneo, are conjugated like the sim- 
ple verb, but most of them have ii in the perfect rather than ivi. § 176. 
Meo, anteeo, ineo, pr&tereo, subeo, and transeo, being used actively, are 
found in the passive voice. Inittur occurs as a future passive of ineo. 
Ambio is regular, like audio, but has either ambibat or ambiebat. 

Queo and nequeo are conjugated like eo, but they want the imperative 
mood and the gerund, and their participles rarely occur. They are some- 
times found in the passive voice, before an infinitive passive. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

<5> 183. Defective verbs are those which are not used 
in certain tenses, numbers, or persons. 



"1 10 defectivj: VERBS. § 183. 

Thnv are many verba which are not found in all the tenses, numbers, 

in the paradigms. Some, not originally defective, 

occur in the classics now extant. 

n their nature defective. Thus, the first and second persons 

of many verbs in the passive voice inurit be wanting, from the nature- of 

their signification. 

The following list contains such verbs as are remarkable for 
wanting many of their parts : — 
1 Odi, I hate. 7. Quaiso, I pray. 12. Confit, it is done. 

2. Ccepi, / have begun. 8. Ave, \j u n 13. Debt, it is wanting. 

3. Memini, I remember. 9. Salve,) * 14. Infit, he begins. 

4. Aio, \ T 10. A pa ire, begone. 15. Ovid, he rejoices. 

5. [nquam, $ ls "'J- 11. Cedo, tell, or give 
0. Fari, to speak. me. 

1. Or//, cccjpt', and memini, are used chiefly in the perfect and 
in the other parts formed from the second root, and are thence 
called preteritive verbs : — Thus, 

Ind. pcrf. o'-di or o'-sus sum ; plup. od'-e-rarn ; fut. perf. od'-e-ro. 
Subj. perf. od'-e-rim ; plup. o-dis'-sem. Inf. perf. o-dis'-se. 
Part. fut. o-su'-rus ; perf. o'-sus. 
Note. Exosus and perosus, like os-us, are used actively. Odlvit, for 
odit, occurs in Cicero. 

2. IsB.pnf. coe'-pi ; plup. ccep'-e-ram ; fut. perf. ccep'-e-ro. 

Subj. perf. ccep'-e-rim; plup. ca>pis'-sem. Inf. perf. coe-pis'-se. 

Tart. fut. ccep-tu'-rus ; perf. caep'-tus. 
Note. In Plautus are found a present, ca-pio, present subjunctive, 
ecepiam, and infinitive ccepere. Before an infinitive passive, captus est, 
&.c, rather than ccepi, &c, are commonly used. 

3. Ind. perf. mem'-i-ni ; plup. me-min'-e-ram ; fut. perf. me-min'-e'-ro. 
Subj. perf. me-min'-e-rim j plup. mem-i-nis'-sem. 

IsF.pcrf. mem-i-nis'-se. 

Imperat. 2 pers. me-men'-to, mem-en-to'-te. 
Note. Odi and memini have, in the perfect, the sense of the present, 
and, in the pluperfect and future perfect, the sense of the imperfect and 
future. In this respect, novi, I know, the perfect of jwsco, to learn, agrees 
with odi and memini. So also, consuevi, I am wont. 

4. Ind. prcs. ai'-o,* a'-is,t a'-it ; , , ai'-unt.* 

imp. ai-e'-bam, ai-e'-bas, ai-e'-bat ; , ai-e-ba'-tis, ai-e'-bant. 

SvBJ.pres. , ai'-as, ai'-at; , , ai'-ant. 

Imperat. a'-i. Tart. pres. ai'-ens. 

5. Ind. pres. in'-quam or in'-qui-o,m'-quis,in'-quit;in'-qui-mu9, in'-qul- 

tis, in'-qui-unt. 

imp. , , in-qui-e'-bat ; , , . 

fut . , in'-qui-es, in'-qui-et ; , , . 

perf. , in-quis'-ti, in'-quit; , , . 

Subj. pres. , , in'-qui-at ; ■ , , . 

Imperat. in'-que, in'-qul-to. 

• Pronounced a -yo, x'-yunt, &c. See §9. t ais with ne is contracted to ain\ 



& 1S4. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



141 



G. In p. ]>rcs. , , fa'-tur ; fut. fa'-bor, , fab'-I-tur. 

Lmpebat. fa'-re. Part. pres. fans ; perf. fa'-tua ; fut. fan'-dus. 
Im in. pres. fa'-ri. Geri ND,^e». fan'-di; aid. fan'-do. SupinE,fa'-tu. 
In like manner the compounds affdri, tffari, and profHri. 

7. Ind. pres. quffi'-so, , quo'-sitj qusBs'-a-mus, , . 

Ink. pres. quces'-6-re. 

8. [mpsrat. a'-ve, a-vo -to ; a-vc'-te. Ink. a-ve'-re. 

9. Ind. pres. sal'-ve-o. fut. sal-ve'-bis. Inf. jpreff. sal-vfi'-re. 
Imperat. sal'-ve, sal-ve'-to ; sal-ve'-te. 

10. Imperat. ap'-a-ge. 

11. Imperat. sing, and plur. ce'-do; pi. cet'-te for ced'-I-te. 

12. Ind. j>rcs. con'-fit; fut. con-fi'-et. 
Subj. pres. con-fi -at ; imperf. con-fi'-S-ret. 

13. Ind. pres. de'-fit ; pi. de-fi'-unt. 
Inf. pres. de-fi'-e'-ri. 

14. Ind. pres. in'-fit; pi. in-fl'-unt. 

15. Ind. pres. o'-vat. Subj. pres. o'-vet; impcrf. o-va'-ret. 
Tart. pres. o'-vans ; perf. o-va'-tus. Gerund, o-van'-di. 

Remark 1. Anion? defective verbs are sometimes, also, included the 
following -—Forem, fores, &c, fore, (see §154,3.) Ausim, ausit ; ausbit. 
Faxo and/aaam, fails, faxit,fazlmus, faxltis, faxint. Faxem. The form 
in o is an old future perfect ; tliat in im a perfect, and that in em a plu- 
perfect, subjunctive. See § 162, 9. 

2. In the present tense, the first person singular, furo, to be mad, and 
dor and dcr, from do, to give, are not used. 

3. A few words, sometimes classed with defectives, are formed by con- 
traction from a verb and the conjunction si ; as, sis for si vis, sultis for si 
cuius, sodes for si audes. 



Ink. pres. con-fi'-S-ri. 
Subj. pres. de-fl'-at. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

<§> 184. Impersonal verbs are those which are used only 
in the third person singular, and do not admit of a per- 
sonal subject. 

1. Their English is generally preceded by the pronoun it, 
especially in the active voice ; as, delectat, it delights ; decet, it 
becomes ; contingit, it happens ; evenit, it happens ; scribltur, 
it is written, &c. 

They are thus conjugated : — 

Atk Conj. 

evenit, 

eveniebat, 

eveniet, 

evenit, 

evenSrat, 

evenerit. 





1st Conj. 


2d Conj. 


3d Conj. 


ND. Pres. 


delectat, 


decet, 


contingit, 


Imp. 


delectabat, 


decebat, 


contingebat 


Fut. 


delectabit, 


decebit, 


continget, 


Perf. 


dclfctavit, 


decuit, 


contigit, 


PI up. 


delectavorat, 


decuerat, 


contigerat, 


Fut. pe 


rf. delectaverit. 


decuerit. 


contigerit. 



142 



Suj 





IMPERSONAL VERBS. 


9 1 




1st Conj. 


2d Conj. 


3d Conj. 


4th Conj. 


Vrts. 


delectet, 


deceat, 


contingat, 


eveniat, 


/m/>. 


delect&ret, 


ret, 


contingeret, 


evenlret, 


Perf. 


delectavfirit, 


dec 


Lg( lit. 


evenerit, 


PI a p. 


delect 


decuisset. 


contigisset. 


evcnisset. 


Pres. 


delectare, 


deci 


contingSre, 


e venire, 


Perf. 


delectavisse 


decuisse. 


contigisse. 


evenisse. 



2. As the passive voice of an active verb may be substituted 
for the active, (see § 141, Rem.) so that of a neuter verb may 
be used in the third person singular, instead of the active form, 
the personal subject of the latter being put in the ablative with 
the preposition a or ah ; as, faveo tibi, I favor thee, or favetur 
tibi a me, thou art favored by me. 







Indicative 


Mood. 




Prcs. 


pugnatur. 


favetur, 


curritur, 


venltur, 


J in p. 


pugnabatur, 


favebatur, 


currebatur, 


veniebatur, 


Fut. 


pugnabltur, 


favebltur, 


curretur, 


venietur, 


Perf. 


pugnatum est 


fautum est or 


cursum est or 


ventum est or' 




or f'uit, 


f'uit, 


fuit, 


fuit, 


Plup. 


pugnatum erat 


fautum erat or 


cursum erat 


ventum erat or 




or fuerat, 


fuerat, ' 


or fuerat, 


fuerat, 


Ft/f.p.pujxnatum erit 


fautum erit or 


cursum erit or 


ventum erit or 




or fuerit. 


fuerit. 
Subjunctive 


fuerit. 
Mood. 


fuerit. 


Prcs. 


pugnetur, 


faveatur, 


curratur, 


veniatur, 


Jmp. 


pugnaretur, 


faveretur, 


curreretur, 


veniretur, 


Ptrf. 


puirnatum sit or 


fautum sit or 


cursum sit or 


ventum sit or 




Fuerit, 


fuerit, 


fuerit, 


fuerit, 


Plup. 


pugnatum esset 


fautum esset 


cursum esset 


ventum esset 




or fuisset. 


or fuisset. 
Infinitive 


or fuisset. 
Mood. 


or fuisset. 


Prcs. 


pugnari, 


faveri, 


curri, 


venlri, 


Perf. 


pugnatum esse 


fautum esse 


cursum esse 


ventum esse or 




or fuisse, 


or fuisse, 


or fuisse, 


fuisse, 


Fut. 


pugnatum iri. 


fautum iri. 


cursum iri. 


ventum iri. 



In like manner the neuter gender of the participle in dus, 
formed from neuter verbs, is used impersonally with est, &,c, 
in the periphrastic conjugation ; as, moriendum est omnibus, all 
must die. See § 1G2, 15. 



Remarks. 

1. Grammarians usually reckon only ten real impersonal verbs, all of 
which are of tlie second conjugation. (See § 1G9.) There seems, how- 
ever, to be no good reason for distinguishing those from other impersonal 
verbs. The following are such other verbs as are most commonlv used 
impersonally : — 



[a.) In the firtt conjugation;— 
Onstat, it is evident. Spectat, it eon; 
ivai tidelitrlds. Stat, it is resolved. 

■Btat, ^ ran, tuts. 

(b ) In the second conjugation ;— 

1 . .. . Solet, ft w usuat. 

iSM3X£li. Nocet, it fa hurtful. Fletur, to- « «^ 
)ebet, i(<.»4i. Pafet, it is ;iZam. " /:f ', t ,r /c r „ 

JtapVcet, it displeases. Perttnet, i< /-/,,,.. Persua i6t m. (See 
Jolet, it jrrie»es\ Plaeet,i* jrfeutf. otow, 8.) 

(r.) In the third conjugation ;— 



[nclpit, it begins. 



185. REDUNDANT VERBS. 



1 13 



Certatur, ft is contend' 
td. 



DesinTtur, ffcere is an Scribitur, it is wrvUen. 



Suii'icit, it suffices. end. 

(d ) In the fourth conjugation ;— 

ConvSnit, it is agreed on. Aperltur, ft is opened. 

Expedit, it is expt dient. Sentitur, it is meant. 

(c ) Among irregular verbs ;— 

AjUndum est, it is ne- Fit, ft fcw - iwSf^cSSL 

•assart/ to depart. Interest, it concerns. kelert, it concerns. 

Adlrai ■ O'rc: £e, 2.) Obest, it is featfiZ. Superest, it remains. 

(/.) To these may be added verbs signifying the state of the weather, or 

tte operations of nature ; as, „,•.'*■ 

Rnlo-Brat it Ziofaens. Lapidat, i« rains stones. Regelat it fAazes. 

ffiS,XX S . Lucescit,^-^^. Tonat, U fundus. 

a+Wtti freezes Ningit, it saotos. Vesperascit, it «p- 

GWdln/t^ hails. Pluit, it m» t .. jnauAe. e—,. 

2 [moersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative take the sub- 

iuLiVTSstead ; as, deZectetflet it delight. the passive voice, their 



perfect participles are used only in the neuter. 

3 Most of the impersonal verbs want participles, gerunds and supines ; 
but Set has a present participle, futures in rus and dus, and the gerund. 
S5S S have also the gerund and future passive participle. 

4 Most of the above verbs are also used personally, but frequently in a 
JieS different sense; as, nt Tiberis inter eos et pons znteresset, so 
that the Tiber and bridge were between them. 

REDUNDANT VERBS. 

§ 185. Redundant verbs are those which have differ- 
ent forms to express the same sense. 

Verbs may be redundant in termination; as, fabrico and 
fabricor, to frame ;— in conjugation ; as, lavo, -arc, and lavo 
-ere, to wash;— or in certain tenses ; as, odi and osus sum, 1 
hate. 



144 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 



§ 186. 



1. The following deponent verbs, besides their passive form, 
have an active in o, of the same meaning. The latter, how- 
ever, is, in general, rarely used. 



Adulor, to flatter. 
Altercor, to dispute. 
Amplexor, to embrace. 
Assentior, to assent. 
Aucupor, to hunt after. 
Auguror, to foretell. 
Cachinnor, to laugh 

aloud. 
Com! tor, to accompany. 



Cunctor, to delay. 
Depascor, to feed upon. 
Elucubror, to elaborate. 
Fabrlcor, to frame. 
Frustror, to disappoint. 
Fruticor, to sprout. 
Impertior, to impart. 
Lachrymor, to weep. 
Ludif Icor, to ridicule. 



Medicor, to heal. 
Mereor, to deserve. 
Metor, to measure. 
Palpor, to caress. 
Populor, to lay waste. 
Ruminor, to ruminate. 
Velif Icor, to set sail. 
Vociferor, to bawl. 



2. The following verbs are redundant in conjugation :- 



Cieo, -ere, > . 
Cio,'.Ire/r.l toea:CKfe - 

Denso, -are, ") to 
Denseo,-ere,r. $ thicken. 
Ferveo, -ere, > to 
Fervo, -ere, r. j boil. 
Fodio, -ere, 



Fodio, -ire, r. 



to di< 



Fulgeo, -ere, ") to 

Fulgo, -ere, r. ) shine 

Lavo, -are, 

Lavo,-ere,r. 

Lino, -ere, 

Linio, -Ire,r 

Scateo, -ere, 

Scato, -ere, r. ) abound. 



> to icash. 

) to 
) anoint. 
) to 



Strideo, -ere, ) to 

Strido, -ere, 5 creak. 

Terffeo, -ere, ") . 

rr s ' - ' > to wive. 

I ergo, -ere, ) 

Tueor, -eri, ) . . . 

Tuor,:i,r.'^^ ro ^- 

Tliose marked r. are 

rarely used. 



Morior, orior, and potior, also, are redundant in conjugation in certain 
parts. See in lists § § 174 and 177. 

<§> 188, 1. Some verbs, also, are spelled alike, or nearly 
alike, but differ in conjugation, quantity, pronunciation, or 
signification, or in two or more of these respects. 

Such are the following :■ — 



Abdlco, -are, to abdi- 
cate. 

Abdlco, -ere, to refuse. 

Accido, -ere, to hap- 
pen. 

Accido, -ere, to cut 
short. 

Addo, -ere, to add. 

Adeo, -Ire, to go to. 

Aggero, -are, to heap 
up. 

Aggero, -ere, to heap 
upon. 

Allego, -are, to depute. 

Allego, -ere, to choose. 

Appello, -are, to call. 

Appello, -ere, to drive 
to. 

Cado, -ere, to fall. 

Caedo, -ere, to cut. 

Cedo, -ere, to yield. 

Caleo, -ere, to be hot. 

Calleo, -ere, to be hard. 

Cano, -ere. to sing. 



Caneo, -ere, to be white. 

Careo, -ere, to icant. 

Caro, -ere, to card wool. 

Celo, -are, to conceal. 

Casio, -are, to carve. 

Censeo, -ere, to think. 

Sentio, -Ire, to feel. 

Claudo, -ere, to shut. 

Claudo, -ere, to be lame. 

Colligo, -are, to tie 
together. 

Colligo, -ere, to collect. 

Colo, -are, to strain. 

Colo, -ere, to cultivate. 

Compello, -are, to ac- 
cost. 

Compello, -ere, to force. 

Concldo, -ere, to chop 

Concldo, -ere, to fall. 
Conscendo, -ere, to 

climb. 
Conscindo, -ere to cut 

in pieces. 



Consterno, -are, to ter- 
. rify. 
Consterno, -ere, to 

strew over. 
Decldo, -ere, to fall 

down. 
Decldo, -ere, to cut off. 
Decipio.-ere, to deceive. 
Desipio, -ere, to dote. 
Deligo, -are, to tie up. 
Deligo, -ere, to choose. 
Diligo, -ere, to love. 
Dico, -ere, to say. 
Dico, -are, to dedicate. 
Edo, -ere, to eat. 
Edo, -ere, to publish. 
Educo, -are, to educate. 
Educo, -ere, to draw 

out. 
Effero, -are, to make 

wild. 
Effero, -re, to carry out. 
Excldo, -ere, to fall out. 
Excldo, -ere, to cut ojj. 



$ 18(3. 



REDUNDANT VEliliS. 



145 



eno, -ire, to strike. 
ero, -re, to bcur. 
erior, -ari, to keep hol- 
iday. 

Frigeo, -ere, to be cold. 

Frigo, -ere, to fry. 

Fugo, -are, to put to 
flight. 

Fugio, -ere, to fly 

Fundo, -are, to found. 

Fundo, -ere, to pour out. 

Incldo, -ere, to fall into. 

lncldo, -ere, to cat. 

Indlco, -are, to shozo. 

Indlco, -ere, to 'pro- 
claim. 

Infieio, -ere, to iufect. 

Infitior, -ari, to deny. 

Intercldo, -ere, to hap- 
pen. 

Intercldo, -ere, to cut 
asunder. 

Jaceo, -ere, to lie do ton. 

Jacio, -ere, to throw. 

Labo, -are, to totter. 

Labor, -i, to glide. 

Lacto, -are, to suckle. 

Lacto, -are, to deceive. 

Lego, -are, to send. 

Lego, -ere, to read. 

Liceo, -ere, to be lawful. 

Liceor, -eri, to bid for. 

Liquo, -are, to melt. 

Liqueo, -ere, to be man- 
ifest. 

Liquor, -i, to melt. 

Mano, -are, to flow. 



Maneo, -ere, to stay. 

Mando, -are, to command. 

Mando, -ere, to cat. 

Me to, -ere, to reap. 

Metor, -ari, to measure. 

Metior, -Iri, to measure. 

Metuo, -ere, to fear. 

Miseror, -ari, to pity. 

Misereor, -eri, to pity. 

Moror, -ari, to delay. 

Morior, -i, to die. 

Niteo. -ere, to glitter. 

Nitor, -i, to strive. 

Obsero, -are, to lock up. 

Obsero, -ere, to sow. 

Occldo, -ere, to fall . 

Occldo, -ere, to kill. 

Operio, -ere, to cover. 

Operor, -ari, to work. 

Opperior, -Iri, to zoait 
for. 

Pando, -are, to bend. 

Pando, -ere, to open. 

Paro, -are, to prepare. 

Pareo, -ere, to appear. 

Pario, -ere, to bring 
forth. 

Pario, -are, to balance. 

Pendeo, -ere, to hang. 

Pendo, -ere, to weigh. 

Percolo, -are, to filter. 

Per colo, -ere, to adorn. 

Permaneo, -ere, to re- 
main. 

Permano, -are, to flow 
over. 

Prcedico, -are, to publish. 



Preedico, -ere, to fore- 
tell. 

Prodo, -ere, to betray. 

Prudeo, -Ire, to come 
forth. 

Recedo, -ere, to retire. 

Recldo, -ere, to fall 
back. 

Recldo, -ere, to cut off. 

Reddo, -ere, to restore. 

Redeo, -Ire, to return. 

Refero, -re, to bring 
back. 

Referio, -Ire, to strike 
back. 

Relego, -are, to remove. 

Relego, -ere, to read 
over. 

Sedo, -are, to allay. 

Sedeo, -ere, to sit. 

Sldo, -ere, to sink. 

Sero, -ere, to sow. 

Sero, -ere, to knit. 

Succido, -ere, to 
down. 

Succido, -ere, to 
dozen. 

Vado, -ere, to go. 

Vador, -ari, to give bail. 

Veneo, -Ire, to be sold. 

Venio, -Ire, to come. 

Venor, -ari, to hunt. 

Vincio, -Ire, to bind. 

Vinco, -ere, to conquer. 

Volo, -are, to fly. 

Volo, velle, to be will- 
ing. 



fall 
cut 



2. Different verbs have sometimes the same perfect ; as, 



Aceo, acui, to be sour. 
Acuo, acui, to sharpen. 
Cresco, crevi, to grow. 
Cerno, crevi, to decree. 
Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. 
Fulcio, fulsi, to prop. 



Luceo, luxi, to shine. 
Lugeo, luxi, to mourn. 
Mulceo, mulsi, to 

soothe. 
Mulgeo, mulsi, to milk. 
Paveo, pavi, to fear. 



Pasco, pavi, to feed. 
Pendeo, pependi, to 

hang. 
Pendo, pependi, to 

weigh. 



To these add some of the compounds of sto and sisto. 

3. Different verbs have sometimes, also, the same supine or 
perfect participle ; as, 



Frico, frictum, to rub. 
Frigo, frictum, to roast. 
Maneo, mansum, to remain. 
Mando, mansum, to chew. 
Pango, pactum, to drive in. 
Paciscor, pactus, to bargain. 

J3 



Pando, passum, to open. 
Patior, passus, to suffer. 
Teneo, tentum, to hold. 
Tendo, tentum, to stretch. 
Verro, versum, to brush. 
Verto, versum, to turn. 



146 DERIVATION OF VERBS. § 187. 



DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

<§. 187. Verbs are derived either from nouns, adjectives, or 
other verbs 

I. Verbs derived from nouns or adjectives are called 
denominatives. 

1. Those which are active are generally of the first conjuga- 
tion ; those which are neuter of the second. They are usually 
formed by adding o or eo to the root ; as, 

Actives from Nouns. Neuters from Nouns. 

Armo, to arm, (arma.) Floreo, to bloom, (flos.) 

Fraudo, to defraud, (fraus.) Frondeo, to produce leaves, (frons.) 

Nomlno, to name, (nomen.) Luceo, to shine, (lux.) 

Numero, to number, (numerus.) Vireo, to flourish, (vis.) 

From Adjectives. 
Albo, to whiten, (albus.) Albeo, to be xchite, (albus.) 

Celebro, to celebrate, (celeber.) Calveo, to be bald, (calvus.) 

Libero, to free, (liber.) Flaveo, to be yellow, (flavus.) 

Sometimes a preposition is prefixed in forming the deriva- 
tive ; as, 

Coacervo, to heap together, (acer- Extirpo, to extirpate, (stirps.) 

vus.) Illaqueo, to insnare, (laqueus.) 

Excavo, to excavate, (cavus.) 

2. Many deponents of the first conjugation, derived from nouns, express 
the exercise of" the character, office, &c. denoted by the primitive ; as, 
architector, to build ; comltor, to accompany ; furor, to steal; from archi- 
tectus, comes, and fur. 

3. Such as denote resemblance or imitation are called imiiatives ; as, 
cornicor, to imitate a crow, from comix ; Graicor, to imitate the Greeks. 
Some of these end in isso ; a.s,patrisso, to imitate a father. 

II. Verbs derived from other verbs are either frequent atives, 
incentives, desideratives, diminutives, or intensives. 

1. Frequent atives express the frequent repetition of the 
action denoted by the primitive. 

They are all of the first conjugation, and are formed from the 
third root. In verbs of the first conjugation, dtu is changed 
into ito, and rarely?/ intoo; as, clamo, to cry, (clamdtu,) clamito, 
to cry frequently ; no, to swim, (natu,) nato. In verbs of the 
other three conjugations, u is changed into o, rarely into ito ; 
as, curro, to run, (cursu,) curso, or curslto, to run frequently. 

Some are derived from the present, or perhaps from an obsolete third 
root ; as, ago, (agltu,) agito. 



§ 188. COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 147 

Some frequentatives are deponent ; as, minitor, from minor (mindtu) ; 
vcrsor, from vcrto (versu). So sector, loquitur, from scquor and loquor. 

Verbs of this class do not always express frequency of action, but have 
sometimes nearly the same meaning as their primitives. 

2. Inceptives, or inchoatives, mark the beginning, or increased 
degree of the action or state expressed by the primitive. 

They all end in sco, and are formed by adding that termina- 
tion to the root of the primitive, with its connecting vowel 
which, in the third conjugation, is i; as, caleo, to be hot; 
calcsco, to grow hot. 

So labo, tabasco; ingcmo, ingemisco ; obdormio, obdormisco. Hisco is 
contracted for hiasco, from hio. 

Most inceptives are formed from verbs of the second conjugation. 

Some inceptives are formed from nouns and adjectives, by adding asco 
or esco to the root ; as, puerasco, from puer ; juvenesco, from juvenis. 

Some inceptives have the same meaning as their primitives; as, adaa- 
resco. 

Note. Inceptives are all neuter, and of the third conjugation. See § 173 

Some verbs in sco which are not inceptives are active ; as, disco, posco. 

3. Desidcratives express a desire of doing the act denoted by 
the primitive. 

They are formed from the third root, by adding urio ; as, 
cceno, to sup, (ccenat,) coznaturio, to desire to sup. 

Desideratives are all of the fourth conjugation. See § 176, Note. 
Verbs in urio, having u long, are not desideratives ; as, prurio, decurio. 

4. Diminutives denote a feeble or trifling action. They are 
formed by adding illo to the root of the primitive ; as, cantillo, 
to sing a little — from canto. 

They are few in number, and are all of the first conjugation. 

5. Intensives denote eager action. They are usually formed 
by adding so, esso, or isso to the root of the primitive ; as, 

- facesso, to act earnestly — from facio. 

So capesso, incesso, from capio and incedo. Concupisco, to desire greatly, 
is also an intensive. 

COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 

<§> 188. Verbs are compounded variously : — 

1. Of a noun and a verb; as, cedifico, heUigero, lucrifacio. 

2. Of an adjective and a verb ; as, amplifico, multipUco, 
vilipcndo. 

3. Of two verbs; as, calefacio, madefacio, patefacio. 

4. Of an adverb and a verb ; as, benefacio, maledico, satago, 
nolo, negligo. 



148 COMPOSITION OF VERES. § 1S9.| 

5. Of a preposition and a verb ; as, addiico, excolo, prodo, 
subrepo, disccrno, scjungo. 

C. Of a preposition and a noun ; as, pernocto, irretio. 

§ 189. In composition, certain changes often occur in the 
radical letters of the simple verb. 

1. The following simple verbs in composition change a into e : 

Areeo, Carpo, Farcio, Jacto, Pario, Patro, Spargo, 

Candeo, Damno, Fatiscor, Lacto, Partio, Sacro, Tracto. 
Capto, Fallo, Gradior, Mando, Patior, Scando, 

Exc. A is retained in amando, prcemando, desacro, and retracto; pr<&- 
damno and pcrtracto sometimes also occur. A is also changed into e in 
depeciscor from paciscor, occento from canto, and anhelo from halo ; com- 
perco also is found. 

2. The following change a, ce, and e, into i : 

Ago, Capio, Habeo, Pango, Rego, Statuo, 

Apiscor, Eg-eo, Jacio, Placeo, Salio, (to leap.) Taceo, 

Cado, Emo, Lacio, Premo, Sapio, Tango, 

Casdo, Fateor, Lcedo, Qusero, Sedeo, Teneo. 

Cano, Frango, Lateo, Pv.apio, Specio, 

Exc. A is retained in circumdgo, perdgo, saidgo ; antehabeo, posthabeo , 
depango, repango ; complaceo and perplacco. Qccano and recano also some- 
times occur. E is retained in coemo. circumsedeo, and supersedco. Ante- 
caj)io and aniicipo are both used ; so also are superjacio and superjicio. 

Coo-o and dego are formed, by contraction, from con, de, and ago ; demo, 
promo, and sumo, from de, pro, suh, and emo ; prabeo, and perhaps debco, 
from prce, de, and habeo ; per go and surgo, from per, svb, and rego. 

Note 1. Facio, compounded with a preposition, changes a into i ; as, 
officio. Some compounds of facio with nouns and adjectives, change a 
into i, and also drop i before o, and are of the first conjugation ; as, signi- 
fico, la>tiflco,magnifico. Specio forms some compounds in the same man- 
ner ; as, consplcor and susplcor. 

Note 2. Lego, compounded with con, de, di, e, inter, nee, and se, changes 
e into i ; as, colllgo, negligo, &c. ; but with ad, prce, per, re, sub, and trans, 
it retains e ; as, allego. 

Note 3. Calco and salto, in composition, change a into u; as, inculco, 
insulto. Plaudo changes an into 6 ; as, explodo ; except applaudo. Audio 
changesaw into e in obedio. Causo, claudo, and quatio, drop a ; as, accuso, 
recludo, percutio. Juro changes u into e in deje.ro and pejero. 

Note 4. The simple verbs with which the following are 
compounded are not used : — 

Defendo, Impedio, Cunfuto, InstTgo, Conniveo, 

Offendo, Iinbuo, Refuto, Impleo, Percello, 

Experior, Compello. (-are,) Ingruo, Compleo, Induo, and some 

Expedio, Appello, (-are,) Congruo, Renideo, Exuo, others. 

For the chancres produced in prepositions by composition with verbs 
see § 196, 1. 



<§> 190, 191. 



ADVERBS. 



149 



PARTICLES. 

§ 190. The parts of speech which are not inflected, are 
called by the general name of particles. They are adverbs, 
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. A word may 
sometimes belong to two or more of these classes, according to 
its connection. 



ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a particle used to modify or limit the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, bene et 
sapienter dixit, he spoke well and wisely ; egregie fidelis, 
remarkably faithful ; vakle bene, very well. 

Remark. The modifications of adjectives and verbs whicrTare effected 
by adverbs, may also generally be made by means of the oblique cases of 
nouns and adjectives ; and many modifications may be denoted by these, 
for expressing which no adverbs are in use. In general, those modifica- 
tions which are most common are expressed by adverbs. Thus, for cum 
sapientid, sapienter is used; hw, for in hoc loco ; bene, for in bono modo ; 
nunc, for hoc tempore, &c. 

Adverbs are divided into various classes, according to the 
nature of the modification denoted by them ; as adverbs of 
place, time, manner, &,c. 

*§> 191. The following lists contain a great part of the more 
common adverbs, except those which are formed, with certain 
regular terminations, from nouns, adjectives, and participles. 
These will be noticed subsequently. 

I. Adverbs of Place and Order. 



Alia, by another icay. 

Alibi, elseichere. 

Alicubi, somewhere. 

Alicunde, from some 
place. 

Alio, to another place. 

Allquo, to someplace. 

Aliunde, from else- 
where. 

Dehinc, henceforth. 

Deinceps, successively. 

Deinde, after that. 

Denlque, finally. 

Denuo, again. 

Deorsum, dorenward. 

Dextrorsum, towards 
the right. 

Ea, that way. 

13* 



E6, to that place. 
Eodem, to the same 

place. 
Exinde, after that. 
Foras, out of doors. 
Foris, without. 
Hac, this way. 
Hie, here. 
Hinc, hence. 
Hue, hither. 
Horsum, hitherward. 
Ibi, there. [place. 

Ibidem, in the same 
lilac, that way. 
Illlc, there. 
lllinc, thence. 
Illorsum, thitherward. 
1116, thither. 



Illuc, thither. 
Inde, then, thence. 
Indidem, from the same 
place. 

Intus, tcithin. 
Istac, that way. 
Istic, there. 
Istinc, thence. 

Necubi, lest any where. 
Neutro, neither way. 
Nusquam, no where. 
Porro, moreover. 
Prorsum , forward. 
Qua ? by which way ? 



150 

whither ? 
Quorsum? whit herward? 
Retro, } 

Retrorsum, V backioard 
Rursum, 3 
Sicubi, if any where. 
Sicunde, if from any 
place. 



ADVERBS. 

Sinistrorsum, towards 

the left. 
Sursum. upward. 
Ubi ? wh 

Ublque, every where. 
Ublvis, any where. 
Uncle ? ichence? 
XJndlque, fro?7i all sides. 



§ 191 

¥*&**> Xanywherl 

Usquam, 5 

Utrinque,<m both sidcs\ 
Utro ? ?/;/a"c/i toon ? 
Utrdbi ? in which place . 
UtrobTque, in both 

places. 
Utroque, each way. 



Remark 1. Most adverbs of place which answer the ques- 
tions where ? whence ? tohither ? by which icay ? and whith- 
erward? have a mutual relation and resemblance : — Thus. 



Ubi? 

Hie, 

Illic, 

Istic, 

Ibi, 

Ibidem, 

Alibi, 

Alicubi, 



Unde ? 

Hinc, 

Illinc, 

Istinc, 

Inde, 

Indidem, 

Aliunde, 

Alicunde, 



Quo? 

Hue, 

Illuc, 

Istuc, 

E6, 

Eodem, 

Alio, 

Ali quo, 



Qua ? 

Hac, 

Iliac, 

Istac, 

Ea, 

Eadem, 

Alia, 

Allqua, 



Quorsum ? 
Horsum, 
Illorsum, 
Istorsurn, 



Aliorsum, 
Aliquoversum. 



Rem. 2. Hie, hinc, hue, refer to the place of the speaker ; 
istic, istinc, istuc, to the place of the person addressed; and 
illic, illinc, illuc, to that of the person or thing spoken of. 

II. Adverbs of Time. 



Aliquando, sometimes. 
Aliquoties, several 

times. 
Bis, (see § 119.) twice. 
Cras, to-morrow. 
Cum, ichen. 
Demum, at length. 
Diu, long. 
Dudum, heretofore. 
Heri, yesterday. 
Hodie, to-day. 
Identldem, now and 

then. 
Illico, immediately. 
Interdum, sometimes. 
Interim, in the mean 

time. 
Iterum, again. 
Jam, now. 
Jamdiu, > , 
Jamdudum, * lons a 



Jamjam, presently. 

Jampridem, long since. 

Mox, immediately. 

Nondum, not yet. 

Nonnunquam, some- 
times. 

Nudius tertius, three 
days ago. 

.Nunc, noio. 

Nunquam, never. 

JXuper, lately- 

OYim, formerly. 

Parumper, a little while. 

Perendie, two days 
hence. 

Postridie. the day after. 

Pridem, heretofore. 

Pridie, the day before. 

Protmus, instantly. 

Quamdiu ? how long? 

Quando ? when ? 



Quater, four times. 
Quondam, formerly. 
Quotidie, daily. 
Quoties ? how often ? 
Raro, seldom. 
R,ursus, again. 
Srepe, often. 
Semel, once. 
Semper, always. 
Statim, immediately. 
Subinde, now and then, 

frequently. 
Tamdiu, so long. 
Tandem, at length. 
Ter, thrice. 
Toties, so often. 

l^'lthen. 

I unc, ) 

Vicissim, by turns. 
Unquam, ever. 



Rem. 3. Some adverbs are used to denote either place, time, or order, 
according to the connection -.—Thus, 

Ubi may signify either where or when ; inde, from that place or time ; 
haclenus, hitherto, in regard to place or time. 

Rem. 4. The interrogative adverbs, like the interrogative pronouns, 
are often used indefinitely ; as, nescio ubi sit, I know not where he is. 
(See § 137, Note.) They are made general by adding vis, libet, or que ; 



<§> 192. 



DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 



151 



as, ulnvis, ubique, every where ; undcllbet, from every where. The ter- 
mination cunque is equivalent to the English soever; &s,ubicunque, where- 

soever. The repetition of an adverb has sometimes the same effect} as, 
quoqud, whithersoever ; ubiiibi, wheresoever. 

III. Adverbs of Manner, Quality, &-c. 

Nimium, too much. Quomodo ? A010 ? in 
Non, not. what manner? 

Num ? whether ? Sane, truly. 

Omnlno, altogether, only. Satis, enough. 



Adeo, so, to such apass. 
Admodum, very much. 
Allter, otlicmoisc. 
An ? whether? 
Ceu, as, like as. 
Cur ? ichy ? 
Duntaxat,on/?/, at least. 
Etiam, truly, yes. 
Fere, almost. 
Ferine, almost, nearly. 
Fortasse, perhaps. 
Frustra, in vain. 
Gratis, freely. 
Maud, not. 
Iramo, yes, truly. 
Ita, so. 

Itldem, in like manner. 
Juxta, alike. 
Magis, more. 
Modo, only. 
JNce, verily. 
Ne, not. 

Nedum, much less. 
Nempe, to loit, truly. 
Nequaquam, ) by no 
Neutiquam, ) means. 
JNhnlrum, certainly. 
IS'imis, too much. 



Palam, openly. 

Parlter, equally. 

Parum, little. 

Paulatim, by degrees. 

Paulo, > ,.„, 

Paulum, \ a httle - 

Paane, almost. 

Penitus, within, wholly. 

Perquam, very much. 

Plerumque, for the 
most part. 

Potius, rather. 

Praesertim, especially. 

Profecto, truly. 

Prope, almost, near. 

Propemodum, almost. 

Prorsus, wholly. 

Quam, as. 

Quamobrem, inhere- 
fore. 

Quare? why? where- 
fore ? 

Quasi, as if, almost. 

Quemadmodum, as. 



Satiiis, rather. 

Scilicet, truly. 

Sec us, otherwise. 

Seorsum, separately. 

Sic, so. 

Sicut, ) 
c- .,' > as. 
Sicuti, ) 

Sigillatim, one by one. 

Simul, together. 

Solum, only. 

Tarn, so. 

Tanquam, as if. 

Tantum, ) , 

Tantummodo, $ 0K ^' 

Una, together. 

Ut, as. 

Uti, as. 

TJti(.\ue, therefore, verily. 

Utpote, as, inasmuch as. 

Valde, very much. 

Velut, > 7.7 

at- w } as, hke as. 

Veluti, ) ' 

Videlicet, certainly. 

Vix, scarcely. 



Rem. 5. Adverbs denoting quality, manner, &c, are sometimes di- 
vided into those of, 1. Quality ; as, bent, malt. 2. Certainty ; as, certt, 
plant. 3. Contingence; as,fortt. 4. Negation; as, haud, non. 5. Prohi- 
bition ; as, ne. 6. Swearing ; as, hercle. 7. Explaining ; as, videlicet, 
utpote. 8. Separation ; as, seorsum. 9. Joining together ; as, simul t 
una. 10. Interrogation; as, cur ? quart? 11. Quantity or degree; as, 
satis, aded. 12. Excess; as, valdt, maxlmt. 13. Defect; as, parum, 
pane. 14. Preference; as, potius, satiiis. 15. Likeness; as, ita, sic. 
1G. Unlikeness ; as, aliter. 17. Exclusion; us, tantum, solum. 



DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 



§ 192, Adverbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, pro- 
nouns, and participles. 

I. From nouns. 

1. Of these a few end in im, and denote manner ; as, 

grcgdtim, in herds ; memhrdtim, limb by limb ; partim, by parts ; vicis- 
sim, by turns; from grex, membrum, pars, and vicis. 



152 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. § 192. 

2. Some end in itus, and denote manner or origin ; as, 
ctditus, from heaven ; funditus, from the bottom ; radicltvs, by the 

roots; from caelum, fundus, and radix. 

3. Some are ablative cases of nouns used adverbially ; as, 
morfd, only ; vulgo, commonly. 

II. From adjectives. 

1. Those which are derived from adjectives of the first and 
second declension, are generally formed by adding e to the root; 
as, 

cegre, scarcely ; alte , high ; liberb, freely ; longe, far ; miserd, miserably ; 
pltnb, fully ; from ceger, alius, liber, longus, miser, and plenus. Bene, well, 
is from bonus, or an older form benus. 

A few end in iter, itus, and im ; as, 

naviter, actively; aliter, otherwise; anliquitus, anciently; divinitus, 
divinely ; privdtim, privately ; singulation, severally ; from navus, alius, 
antlquus, divlnus, privdtus, and singuli. 

Some adverbs are formed with two or more of the above terminations 
with the same meaning; as, dure and durlter, harshly : so caute and cuu- 
tim ; humane*, humaniter, and humanitus ; publtce and publicitus. 

2. Adjectives of the third declension form adverbs by adding 
iter to the root, except when it ends in t, in which case er only 
is added ; as, 

acrlter, sharply ; felictter, happily ; turpiter, basely ; — eleganter, ele- 
gantly ; prudenter, prudently ; from acer, felix, turpis, elegans, and pru- 
dens. From audax, comes by syncope audacter. 

From omnis is formed omnlno ; and from nequam, nequiter. 

3. From the cardinal numerals are formed numeral adverbs 

in ies ; as, 

quinquies, decies, from quinque and decern. So toties and quoties, from 
tot and quot. See § 119. 

4. Some adverbs are merely certain cases of adjectives. 
Such are, 

(a.) Ablatives in o or a ; as, citd, quickly ; continue), immediately ; falso, 
falsely ; recta, straight on ; und, together. In like manner, repente, sud- 
denly, from rcpens. 

(b.) Nominatives or accusatives neuter, in the singular, and sometimes 
in the plural ; as, solum, only ; perfidhm, perfidiously ; sublimh, on high; 
facilt, easily; mulia, much ; tristia, sadly. 

(c.) From some adjectives of the first and second declension, chiefly 
ordinal adjectives, forms both in um and o are used ; as, primiim and 
prima, first; postrevium and postremo, finally. 

Note 1. These adverbs are properly adjectives agreeing with some 
noun understood, either definite, as, rectd, sc. vid, or indefinite. Those 
in o are the most numerous. The plural forms occur chiefly in poetry. 

Note 2. Some adjectives, from the nature of their signification, have 
no corresponding adverbs Of some others, also, none occur in the 
classics. 



$ 193. COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. 153 

III. From the adjective pronouns are derived adverbs of 
place, &/C. (See § 191, Rem. 1.) 

The ablative in o is used to denote a place whither, instead of the accu- 
sative with a preposition ; as ; ea for ad cum locum ; and the ablative in a, 
to denote by or through a place ; as, ed ; vid or parte being understood. 

IV. From participles are derived adverbs denoting manner. 
Those from present participles are formed by adding er to the 
root ; those from perfects by adding e, and sometimes im ; as, 

amanter, lovingly ; properanter, hastily ; from amans and propirans ; — 
doctb, learnedly ; orndth, elegantly; raptim, by rapine ; strictim, closely ; 
from doctus, orndtus, raptus, and strictus. 

The ablative in o of some perfect participles, like that of adjectives, 
is used adverbially ; as, auspicdto, auspiciously; consultd, designedly. 

Note. A few adverbs are derived from prepositions; as, clanculwn, 
privately ; from clam ; — subtus, beneath ; from sub. 



COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. 

<§> 193. Adverbs are compounded variously : — - 

1. Of an adjective and a noun ; as, postridie, magnope're, summopSre, 
multimodis, quotannis — of poste.ro die, magno op&re, summo opgre, jnultis 
modis, quot annis. 

2. Of a pronoun and a noun; as, hodie, quart, quomodd — of hoc die, 
qud re, &c. 

3. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, nudius, scepenumSro — of nunc dies, 
&c. 

4. Of a preposition and a noun ; as, comlnus, eminus, illico, obviam, 
postmodo, propediem — of con, e, and manus ; in and loco ; ob and mam, &c. 

5. Of an adjective and a pronoun; as, alio qui, cetero qui — of alius, ccterus, 
and qui. 

6. Of a pronoun and an adverb ; as, aliquandiu, alicubi — of aliquis, diu, 
and ubi; nequdquam — of ne and quisquam. 

7. Of two verbs ; as, ilicet, scilicet, videlicet — of ire, scire, videre, and 
licet. 

8. Of a verb and an adverb ; as, quolibet, ubims, undelibet. So dein- 
ceps — from dein and capio. 

9. Of a participle with various parts of speech; as, deorsum, dextrorsum, 
horstim, retrorsum, sursum — of de, dexter, hie, retro, super, and vorsus or 
versus. 

10. Of two adverbs ; as, jamdudum, quousque, sicut. 

11. Of a preposition and an adjective; as, denuo, imprimis-^-of de novo, 
in primis. 

12. Of a preposition and a pronoun ; as, quapropter, postea, interea, prce- 
terea — of propter qua, post ea, &,c. 

13. Of a preposition and an adverb ; as, abhinc, adhuc, derepente, per- 
scepe. 



I.)l COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. PREPOSITIONS. § 105. 

14. Of two or three prepositions; as, insujier, prottnus, inde, dcin, 
deindi , / < rindi , 

15 Of a co ijuni Li n and an adverb as, necubi, sictibi — of ne, si, and 
a 

16. Of an adverb and a termination scarcely used except in composition; 
as, ibidem, parumper, quandocunque, ublqve, vtcunque. 

]?. Of three different parts of speech ; as, fortHtan — of fors, sit, an 
que mad mud am, quamobrem, &c. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

<§> 194. Adverbs derived from adjectives with the termina- 
tions e and tcr, and most of those in o, are compared like their 
primitives. The comparative, like the neuter comparative of 
the adjective, ends in ius; the superlative is formed from the 
superlative of the adjective by changing us into e ; as, 

dure, duriiis, durissim&;facilb,faciliiis,faciUim&; acrltcr, acrius, accr- 
r'imc ; vara, rariks, rarisslmb ; mature, maturius, maturissimi or maturrlmd. 

Some adverbs have superlatives in o or um ; as, mcritissimd, plurimian, 
prima or primuni, potissimum. 

If the comparison of the adjective is irregular or defective, 
that of the adverb is so likewise ; as, 

hate, melius, optlme ; male, pejus, pcssimd ; fa rum, minus, minimi; 
mult ) or multum, plus, plurimiim ; — , prhis, primd or primitm ; — , ocius, 
ocissUmb ; mcrXtd, — , mcritissimd ; satis, sutiits, — . Magis, maoimc, 
(from magnus,) has no positive; nupcr, nuperrime, has no comparative. 
Propc, propius, proximc ; the adjective propior has no positive. 

Diu and scepe, though not derived from adjectives, are yet compared; — 
diu, diutius, diutisslme ; scepe, scepius, scepissime. A comparative tempe- 
ring, from temptri or tempori, also sometimes occurs. So secus, secius. 

Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes compared by prefix- 
ing ?nagis and maxime ; a.s,magis aperte, maxims accommodate. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 195. A preposition is a particle which expresses the 
relation between a noun or pronoun and some preceding 
word. 

Twenty-six prepositions have an accusative after them : — 

Ad, to, at, for, before. Circa, ~) around, F.rga.,toicards, opposite. 

Ad versus, ) against, Circum, ) about. Extra, without, beyond, 

Adversum, $ towards. Circiter, about, near. besides. 

Ante, btforc. Cis, ) on this side, Infra, under, beneath. 

Apud, at, with, among, Citra, ) without. Inter, between, among, 

before. Contra, against, opposite. at, in time of. 



§ 190. 



PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 



L55 



[Dtra, icithin. 

Juxta, near. 

Ob, for, on account of, 

before. 
Penes, in the power of. 
Per, through .by, during 
Pone, behind. 



Secundum, according 
to, along, ncjt to, 
for. 

Supra, above. 
Trans, orcr, beyond. 
Ultra, beyond. 



Post, after, since, be- 
hind. 

Prceter, bnjond, except, 

contrary to, before. 
Prope, nigh, by, beside. 
Propter,/<W, on account 

of, ncur. 

Eleven prepositions have an ablative after them : — 

Pre, before, for, on ac- 
count of, in compar- 
ison of. 

Pro, for, before, consid- 
ering, according to. 

Sine, without. 

Tenus, as far as, vp to. 



A, ) 

Ab, V from, by, after. 

Abs,; 

Absque, without, but 
for. 

Coram, before, in pres- 
ence of. 



Cum, with. 

De, of, concerning, 

from, after, for. 
E, \from, of, out of, 
Ex, 5 by, for, since. 
Palam, before, loiih the 

knowledge of. 



Five prepositions take after them sometimes an accusative, 
and sometimes an ablative : — 

In, in, into. Sub, under, near. Super, above. Subter, under, beneath. 

Clam, xoithout the knowledge of. 

Remark 1. Prepositions are so called, because they are generally 
placed before the noun or pronoun whose relation they express. Ihey 
sometimes, however, stand afler it. 

Rem. 2. A is used only before consonants; ab before vowels, and 
sometimes before consonants ; abs before q and t. 

E is prefixed only to consonants, ex both to vowels and consonants. 

Rem. 3. Versus, usque, and exadversus (-urn) sometimes take an accu- 
sative, simul and procul, an ablative, and are then by some called prep- 
ositions. Sccus, with an accusative, occurs in Pliny and Cato. 

PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

S>196. Prepositions are compounded with various parts of 
.speech. In composition, they may be considered either in 
reference to their form, or their force. 

I Prepositions in composition sometimes retain their final 
consonants, and sometimes change them, to adapt them to the 
sounds of the initial consonants of the words with which they 
are compounded. In some words, both forms are in use ; in 
others, the final consonant or consonants are omitted. 

1 A in composition, is used only before m and a; as ,amoveo, a cello. 
Abis used before vowels, and before d,f 7 h,j I, n, r, and s; as, ahjuro, 
abrovo &c. Abs occurs only before c, q, and t; as abscondo, absque, 
abstfneo In asporto, b is dropped ; in auflro and aufugio, it is changed 

in 2 U Ad often changes d into c, f, g, I, n, p, r, s, t, before those letters 
respectively ; as, accedo, after o,aggredior, alUgo annltor appono, arrlgo, 
asTqlor aUollo D is usually omitted before s followed by a consonant, 



156 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. § L96. 

and before gn ; ;ts, aspergOj aepido, agnosco, agndtus. Before q, </ is 
ed into c ; as, acqulro. 
;'. Circiim usually omits m before a vowel; as, circuit), circultus. It 
sometimes changes m into n before </; as, circundo'. 

•1. Cuwi (in composition, coin) retains m before b, m, p; as, cinnlnho, 
eommitto, compono : before I, n, r, its m is changed into those letters 
respectively ; as, colllgo, connitor, corripio : before other consonants, it 
becomes n; as, condiico, conjungo, A:c. Before a vowel, gn or k, m is 
commonly omitted; as, coCo, coopto, cogo (com ago), cognosco, cohaMto ; 
but it is sometimes retained; as, comedo, comes, comltor. In comburo, b 
is inserted. 

.">. Ex is prefixed to vowels, .and to c, h,p, q, s, t ; as, cxco, exlgo, cx- 
curro, exhibeo, ezpedio, Ac. Before f, x is changed into f ; as, effero : 
s after z is often omitted ; as, exequor. E is prefixed to the other con- 
sonants; as, cbibo, edlco, &c. These, with the exception of n and r, are 
also very rarely preceded by ex; as, exmoveo. P is sometimes preceded 
by c ; as, cpoto. 

('-. In, before b, m,p, changes n into m; as, imbuo t immitto, impono '■: 
before / and r, it changes n into those letters respectively; as, illigo, 
irretio : before gn, n is omitted ; as, igndrus. In some compounds, in 
retains d before a vowel, from an ancient form endtt or indu ; as, iudugo, 
indigeo, indolesco. So anciently enduperdtor, or induperdtor. 

7. Ob changes b into c, f, g, p, before those letters respectively ; as, 
occurro, ojjicio, ogganio, oppUo. hi omitto, b is dropped. 

8. Per changes r into / in pellicio and pelluceo. 

9. Pro sometimes takes d before a vowel; as, prodeo, prodessc. 

10. Sub sometimes changes b into c, f, g, m, p, r, before those letters 
respectively; as, succedo, suffero, suggero, sinninuao, supplico, surripio. 
Before c, p, and t, b is sometimes changed into s; as, suscipio, suspendo, 
sustollo : it is omitted before s, followed by a consonant ; as, suspicio. 

11. Trans omits s before s ; as, transcendo : before other consonants, it 
often omits ns ; as, trojicio, tramitto, trano, &c. 

The following words are called inseparable prepositions, 
because they are found only in composition : — 

Amb, around, about. Red or re, again, back. Ve, not. 

Dis or di, asunder. Se, a fart, aside. 

12. Jlmb before a vowel is unchanged; as, ambarvdlts, ambio.amhustns : 
before consonants, b is omitted, and m, except before p, is chnnged into n ; 
as, anf cactus, anqulro, amputo. 

13. Dis is prefixed to words beginning with c,p, q, s, t; as. dist 

. disqulro, dissSro, distendo : before /, s is changed into f ; ns, 
diff&ro r in a'iriuio, s becomes r. Di is prefixed to the other consonants, 
and to s when followed by a consonant; as, diduco, dimitto, distinguo^ 
dispicio. But both dis and di are used before j and r ; as, disjimgo, diju- 
ii-m. disrumpo or dirumpo. 

14. Red is used before a vowel or h ; re before a consonant; a.s,rcdamo, 
rid id, redhibeo, nil I go, rcdolco, rcdundo ; — rcjicio, repono, revertor. But 
red is used before do ; as, rcildo. 

15. Se and ce are prefixed without change ; as, sccedo, securus ; vegran- 
dis, v<< 



^ 197, 198. conjunctions. 157 

<§> 197. IT. Prepositions in composition usually add their 
own signification to that of the word with which they arc 
muted; but sometimes they give to the compound a meaning 
different from that of its simples, as in the following exam- 
ples : — 

1. .1, with a noun, sometimes denotes privation ; as, aniens, mad. 

2. Ail is sometimes intensive ; as, adamo, to love greatly ; adblbo, to 
drink much. 

3. Dc often signifies downward ; as, descend*), to descend ; d/eldo, to 
fall down. It is sometimes intensive ; as, deamo, to love greatly ; de- 
mlror, &c. Sometimes it denotes privation; as, despero, to despair ; 
dentins, mad; dceolor, discolored. 

4. Dis is sometimes intensive ; as, discupio, to desire greatly ; and 
sometimes negative; as, dissimUis, unlike. 

5. E and c.c are sometimes intensive ; as, croro, to beg earnestly ; cx- 
audio, to hear perfectly. Sometimes they denote privation ; as, ezsanguis, 
bloodless ; exspes, hopeless. 

6. In, with adjectives, generally denotes negation ; as. infldus, unfaithful ; 
indignus, unworthy. In some compounds, it has contrary significations, 
according as they are participles or adjectives; as, invoedtus, called upon 
or not called upon ; immutatus, changed or unchanged, &c. 

7. Ob sometimes denotes around; as, obeo, to go around; sometimes 
against ; as, oppono, to oppose ; obsto, to withstand. 

8. Per, with adjectives, is commonly intensive ; a.s, percdrus, very dear ; 
perfucllis, very easy. With ijuarn, it is strongly intensive ; as, perquam 
brcntcr, with exceeding brevity. In perfidus, perfidious, per is negative. 

!). Free, with adjectives, is intensive ; as, praicldrus, very clear ; pne- 
rahdus, very strong. 

It). Pro sometimes denotes forth ; as, jrroduco, to bring forth; prolo- 
quor, to speak out. 

11. Red is sometimes intensive ; as, red undo, to overflow : sometimes it 
is negative ; as, retigo, to uncover; recbudo, to unlock. 

12. Se, with adjectives, denotes privation; as, secUrus, without care. 

13. Sub often diminishes the meaning; a.s,subrideo, to smile j subdulcis, 
sweetish ; subtristis, somewhat sad. It sometimes denotes motion up- 
wards ; as, subrigo, to raise up. 

14. I r c, with adjectives, denotes privation; as, vesanus, unsound; 
vecors, foolish. 

Remark. Prepositions in composition seem often to add nothing to the 
signification of the words with which they are compounded. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 198. A conjunction is a particle which connects 
words or propositions. 
11 



153 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



§ 198. 



The most usual conjunctions are, 



Ac, and, as, than. 
An, whether. 
Anne, tohether. 
Annon, whether or not. 
At, ast, but. 
Atque, and, as, than. 
Atqui, but. 
Attamen, yet . 
Aut, either, or. 
Autem, but, 
Ceterum, but, hoioever. 
Cum, quum, since. 
Cum. ..turn, both. ..and. 
Duzn, provided, while. 
Dummodo, so that. 
Enim,jfor. 
Equidem, indeed. 
Ergo, therefore. 
Et, and. 

Et...et, both.. .and. 
Etiam, also. 
Etiamsi, although. 
Etsi, though. 
Idcirco, therefore. 



Ideo, therefore. 
Igitur, therefore. 
Itaque, therefore. 
Licet, though. 
Modo, provided. 
Nam, nam que, for. 
Ne, lest. 
-Ne, whether. 
Nee, neither, nor. 
Nee... neque, neither... nor. 
Necne, or not. 
Neque, neither, nor. 
Neu, neither, nor, and not. 
Neu...neve, neither... nor. 
Ni y nisi, unless. 
Num, whether. 
Quam, than. 
Quamvis, although. 
Quando, quandoqui- 
dem, ichereas, since. 
Quanquam, although. 
-Que... -que, both... and. 
Quia, because. 
Quin, but that. 



Quippe, because. 

Quo, in order that. 

Quod, because. 

Quoniam, since. 

Quoque, also. 

Sed, but. 

Seu or sive, or. 

Seu...sive, whether. ..or. 

Si, if. — Quasi, as if. 

Sin, but if. 

Siquidem, if indeed, 
since. 

Tamen, however. 

Tametsi, although. 

Turn.. .turn, both. ..and. 

Ut, that. 

Uti, that, to the end that. 

Utrum, whether. 

-Ve, either, or. 

Vel, either, or. 

Vero, truly. 

Verum, but. 

Veruntamen, notwith- 
standing. 



Conjunctions, according to their different significations, may 
be divided into the following classes : — 

1. Copulatives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
jointly ; as, ac, atque, et, etiam, que, quoque, and the negative nee or 
neque. 

2. Disjunctives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
separately ; as, aid, seu, sive, vc, vel, and the negative neve or neu. 

3. Concessives, or such as express a concession ; as, etsi, etiamsi, 
tametsi, lied, quanquam , quamvis. 

4. Adversatives, or such as express opposition ; as, at, at qui, autem, 
ceterum, sed, tamen, attdmen, veruntamen, verb, veiiim, sin. 

5. Causals, or such as express a cause or reason; as, emm, cttnim, 
nam, namque, quando, quandoquldcm, quia , quippe, quad, quoniam, quum 
or cum, siquidem. 

6. Ileatives, or such as express an inference ; as, ergo, idcirco, ideo, 
igitur, itaque, proinde, quapropter, quart, quamobrem, quocirca. 

?. Finals, or such as denote a purpose, object, or result; as, ne, quin, 
quo, quominus, ut, uti. 

8 Conditionals, or such as express a condition ; as, si, sin, nisi or ni, 
dummodo, or separately either dam or modo. 

9. SusPEiNsivES, or such as express doubt; as, an, anne, annon, -ne y 
nccne, num, utrum. 

Remark 1. Ac rarely stands before vowels or A; atque chiefly before 
vowels, but also before consonants. 



§ 199. INTERJECTIONS. 159 

Rem. 2. The conjunctions -ne, -que, -ve, are not used alone, but are 
always annexed to some other word. They are called enclitics. 

Rem. 3. Some words here classed with conjunctions are also used as 
adverbs, and many classed as adverbs are likewise conjunctions ; that is, 
they at the same time qualify verbs, &c, and connect propositions ; as, 
Ceteris in rebus, ciim venit calamitas, turn detrimcntum accipltur ; In other 
concerns, when misfortune comes, then damage is received. 

Rem. 4. Conjunctions, like adverbs, are variously compounded with 
other parts of speech, and with each other; as, atque, idcirco, idco^ 
namque. 

In some, compounded of an adverb and a conjunction, each of the sim- 
ples retains its meaning, and properly belongs to its own class ; as, etiam 
(etjam), and now ; itaque, and so; neque or nee, and not. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

§ 199. An interjection is a particle used in exclama- 
tion, and expressing some emotion of the mind. 
The most usual interjections are, 

Ah! ah! alas! Euge ! well done! Io ! huzza! 

Atat ! ha ! indeed ! Evax ! ~> , , O ! oh! 

Au ! hush ! whist ! Evoe ! ) ' Oh ! oh ! alas ! 

Ecce ! Io ! behold ! Ha ! ha ! he ! ha ! ha ! Ohe ! ho ! hold ! 

Ehem ! strange! Hei ! wo! alas! Oi ! hoy! alas! 

Eheu ! alas ! Hem ! ho ! hold ! how ! Papae ! strange ! 

Eho ! ehodum ! soho ! Io ! bravo ! Proh ! oh ! alas ! 

Ejalow/ Heu ! too! alas! St! hush! 

En! Io! behold! Ileus ! ho there ! mark ! Va9 ! wo! 

Eu ! bravo ! Hui ! away ! ho ! Vah ! ha ! alas! bravo! 

Remark 1. An interjection sometimes denotes several different emo- 
tions. Thus, vah is used to express wonder, grief, joy, and anger. 

Rem. 2. Other parts of speech may sometimes be regarded as inter- 
jections ; as, pax ! be still ! So indignum, infandum, miserum, miserabile, 
nefas, when used as expressions of grief or horror. 



160 SYNTAX. §200,201. 



synta: . 

§200. Syntax treats of the construction of proposi- 
tions, their connection and dependence. 

A proposition is a thought expressed in words. It con- 
sists of a subject and a predicate. 

The subject of a proposition is that of which something 
is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 

Thus, in the proposition, Equus currit, The horse runs, equus 
is the subject, and currit is the predicate. 

Note. The word affirm, as used by grammarians, must be understood 
to include all the various significations of the verb, as expressed in the 
different moods. 

SUBJECT. 

§ 201. I. The subject is either grammatical or logical. 

The grammatical subject is either a noun, or some word 
standing for a noun. The logical subject consists of the gram- 
matical subject, with its modifications. 

Thus, Conscientia bene actae vitas est jucundisslma, The consciousness of 
a well- spent life is very pleasant. Here conscientia is the grammatical, 
and conscientia bene actce vita the logical, subject. 

Note. If the grammatical subject is not modified, it is the same as the 
logical subject. 

II. The subject is also either simple or compound. 
A simple subject is a single noun or word standing for a noun, 
either alone or variously modified ; as, 

Vita brevis est, Life is short. Longissima homlnis vita brevis est, The 
longest life of man is short. Fugaces labuntur anni. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, 
to which one predicate belongs ; as, 

Luna et stellsa fulgebant, The moon and stars were shining. GrammatTce 
ac muslce junctce fuerunt, Grammar and music were united. 

Remark. Words are said to modify or limit others, when 
they serve to explain, describe, enlarge, restrict, or otherwise 
qualify their meaning. 



<§, 201. SYNTAX. SUBJECT. 1G1 

Modified Subject. 

III. A grammatical subject may be modified or limited in 
different ways : — 

1. By a noun in the same case, annexed to it for the sake of 
explanation or description ; as, 

JVus consoles des-Umus, We consuls are remiss. Mucins augur viulta 
narrdvit, Mucius the augur related many things. 

2. By the oblique case of a noun or pronoun to which the 
subject has some relation ; as, 

Amor multitudlnis commovetur, The love of the multitude is excited, 
J)e victoria Cessans fania perfertur, A report of the victory of Cccsur 
is brought. OppTda sine prccsidin, Towns icithout a garrison. 

3. By an adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle ; as, 

Fuoit invida. cetas, Envious time flies. Ducit agmlna Penthesilea furetis, 
Penthesilea raging leads on her troops. 

4. By the relative qui and the words connected with it ; as, 
Lcve jit quod bene fertur onus, The burden which is well borne becomes 

light. Literal, quas scripsisti, accepts sunt. 

Remark 1. A noun or pronoun, in any case, may be modi- 
fied in either of the ways above mentioned. 

Rem. 2. An adjective modifying a noun may itself be 

modified : — 

(1.) By an adverb ; as, 

Erat expectatio valde magna, There was very great expectation. 

(2.) By a noun in an oblique case; as, 

Major pietate, Superior in piety. Contentionis cvpldus, Fond of conten- 
tion. 

(3.) By a relative or other dependent clause ; as, 
Vidttur, qui imperet, dignus ; He seems worthy to command. 
(4.) By an infinitive mood, a gerund, or a supine; as, 
Insuetus vera audlre, Unused to hear the truth. Promptus ad agendum, 
Ready to act. Mirablle dictu, Wonderful to be spoken. 

Rem. 3. A participle may be modified like a verb. See 
§ 202, III. 

Rem. 4. An adverb may be modified: — 

(1.) By another adverb; as, 

Maoris aperte, More openly. Valde zchemenlcr, Very vehemently. 

(2.) By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, in an oblique case ; as, 

Congruenter naturae., Agreeably to nature. Opilme omnium, Best nf all. 

Rem. 5. A preposition may be modified by an adverb, or by 
a noun in an oblique case; as, 

Longe ultra, Far beyond. Multo ante noctem, Long before nighf. 
Sexennio post Veios captos. 
14* 



162 SYNTAX. PREDICATE. $ 202. 

Rem. G. A modified grammatical subject, considered as one 
complex idea, may itself be modified ; as, 

Omnia tua consilia, Jill thy counsels. Here ovinia modifies, not consilia, 
but the complex idea tua consilia. So Omnia tua prava consilia. 

IV. 1. An infinitive, either alone or with the words connected 
with it, and also an entire clause, may be the logical subject of 
a proposition ; as, 

Mentlri est turpe, To lie is base. Virtus est vitium fugere, To shun rice 
is a virtue. E cado dcscendit, " Nosce te ipsum." JEquum est ut hoc facias. 

In such cases, the verb, or, if that be esse, the verb with its 
predicate noun or adjective, may be considered as the gram- 
matical subject; as, 

Oratorem irasci non decet. JVon satis est, pulchra esse pocmata. 

2. In consequence of the various modifications of the gram- 
matical subject of a proposition, the logical subject may be 
greatly extended. 

3. The noun or pronoun which is the subject of a proposition, 
is put in the nominative case, except that, when the verb of the 
predicate is an infinitive mood, it is put in the accusative. 

Note. In the following pages, when the term subject alone is used, 
the grammatical subject is intended. 



PREDICATE. 

<§> 202. I. The predicate, like the subject, is either gram- 
matical or logical. 

The grammatical predicate is either a verb alone, or the cop- 
ula sum with a noun, adjective, or adverb. The logical predi- 
cate consists of the grammatical predicate with its modifications. 

Thus, Scipio fudit Annibalis copias, Scipio routed the forces of Hanni- 
bal. Here fudit is the grammatical, and fudit Jlnnibalis copias the logical, 
predicate. Romulus Romance conditor urbis erat. 

Note. If the grammatical predicate is not modified, it is the same as 
the logical predicate. 

II. The predicate also, like the subject, is either simple or 
compound. 

A simple predicate is one which contains a single finite* 
verb; as, 

Rrevis est voluptas, Pleasure is brief. Mors venit, Death comes. 
Mors aequo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas, regumque turres. 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predi- 
cates belonging to the same subject ; as, 

Probltas laudatur et alget, Honesty is praised and neglected. 

* A verb in any mood except the infinitive, is called a finite verb. 



§ 203. SYNTAX. SENTENCES. 1 G3 

Modified Predicate. 

III. A grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in 
different ways : — 

1. By a noun or adjective in tlie same case as the subject. 
This occurs after certain neuter verbs, and verbs passive of 
naming, calling, &c. (see §210, Rem. 3) ; as, 

Inctdo reglna, 1 walk queen. Aristldes Justus est appclldtus. 

2. By a noun in an oblique case ; as, 

Dcus regit mundum, God rules the world. Ago tibi gratias. Ex volun- 
tate fecit. Spe vivlmus. Vend ad urbem. 

3. By adverbs ; as, 

Sa'pe venit, He often came. Lite.ro. facile discv.ntur. 

4. By an infinitive mood, or other dependent clause; as, 

Cup it discere, He desires to learn. Vereorne reprehendar. Fac cogTtes. 

Hem. 1. An infinitive may be modified like the verb of a 
predicate. 

Rem. 2. All other words used to modify verbs, may them- 
selves also be modified in the ways mentioned under the article 
Modified Subject, § 201, III. 

SENTENCES. 

$> 203. 1. A sentence may consist either of one proposi- 
tion, or of two or more propositions connected together. 

A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a simple 
sentence. 

A sentence consisting of two or more propositions, is called a 
compound sentence, and the propositions of which it is com- 
posed are called members, or clauses. 

2. The members of a compound sentence are either inde- 
pendent or dependent. 

An independent clause is one which makes complete sense 
by itself. A dependent clause is one which makes complete 
sense only in connection with another clause. 

Thus, Phocion fuit perpetad pauper, cum dUissimvs esse posset; Phocion 
was always poor, though he might have been very rich. Here the former 
clause is independent, the latter dependent. 

3. That member of a compound sentence on which the other 
members depend, is called the leading clause; its subject, the 
leading subject ; and its verb, the leading verb. 



164 SYNTAX. APPOSITION. § 204. 

The leading verb is usually cither in.the indicative or imper- 
ative mood, but sometimes in the subjunctive. 

•J. The members of a compound sentence may be connected 
by relative words, conjunctions, or adverbs. 
* An infinitive with its subject may be united with another 
clause without a connective. 

5. Instead of a dependent clause connected by a conjunction, 
a noun and participle, or two nouns, sometimes stand as an 
abridged proposition ; as, 

Hello confecto, discessit, i. e. quum helium confectum essct, discessit; 
The war being finished, or when the war was finished, he departed. JVil 
desperandumf Teucro duce. Hor. 

(>. Agreement is the correspondence of one word with another 
in gender, number, case, or person. 

7. A word is said to govern another, when it requires it to be 
put in a certain case or mood. 

8. A word is said to depend on another, when its case, gen- 
der, number, mood, tense, or person, is determined by that word. 

9. A word is said to follow another, when it depends upon it 
in construction, whatever may be its position in the sentence. 



APPOSITION. 

§ 204. A noun, annexed to another noun or to a pro- 
noun, and denoting the same person or thing, is put in the 
same case ; as, 

Roma urbs, The city Rome. JYos consTiles, We consuls. So Apud 
Herodotum, patrem histories, sunt innumerabllesj alula ; In Herodotus, the 
father of history, &c. Cic. Lapides silices, flint stones. Liv. Fons cui 
nomen Arethusa est. Cic. 

Remark 1. A noun, thus annexed to another, is said to be in apposi- 
tion to it. It is general^ odded for the sake of explanation or description ; 
sometimes it denotes character or purpose ; as, Ejus fuga comltem me 
atljunxi, I added myself, as a companion -of his flight ; and sometimes the 
time, cause, reason, &c., of an action ; as, Alexander pucr, when a boy. 
lioth nouns must belong to the same part of the sentence, either subject or 
predicate. In cases of apposition, there seems to be an ellipsis of the ancient 
participle ens, being- ; qui est, who is ; qui vocdtvr, who is called ; or the like. 

Rem. 2. If the annexed noun has a form of the same gender as the 
other noun, it takes that form ; as, Usus magister cgregius. Plin. Philoso- 
pkia magistra vita. Cic. ; and if a noun of the common gender, it agrees 
in gender with the preceding noun; as, Lauras fidisslma custos. 

II km. 3. The annexed noun sometimes differs from the other in gender ; 
as, Dun fulmina belli, Scipiddos ; The Scipios, two thunderbolts in war 
(Cic); — sometimes in numher ; as, Tulliohi, delicios nostra (Cic); — and 
sometimes in both ; as, Kate, mca vires. Virg. 

Rem. 4. The substantive pronoun is sometimes omitted before the 



^204. SYNTAX. — APPOSITION. 165 

word in apposition to it; as, Consul dixi, bc. ego; (I) the consul said. In- 
st, -ml of the substantive pronoun, a stive pronoun is 
tunes used ; as, Tin domus, talis viri. Cic. See 5 211, R. 2. 

Rem. 5. A noun in apposition i" two or more nouns, is usuallj pul in 
the nlural; as, M. Antonius, C. Cassius, tribuni vlebis ; M. Antony, C 
: :, tribunes of the people. (';■■<. Publius et Servius Sulla. Sail. 

So when the nouns an- connected by cmto, the annexed noun taking the 
the former ; as, Dicaiarchum oerd cum Aristoxi //", doctos sane hom- 
ines, omUtamus. Cic. 

If the nouns an- proper names of different genders, a masculine • 
bexed rather than a feminine, when both forms exist; as, Ad Ptolemaium 
tramque reges legdti missi. Liv. 

11km. (i. The annexed noun is sometimes in the genitive J as, Urbs 
Patavii; The eity of Patavium. Virg. Amnis Eridani. Id. Arbor fici. 
Cic. Nomen Mercurii est mihi. Plaut. Ru pili et Persl par. Hor. 

Rem 7 The name of a town in the genitive occurs with an ablative 
in apposition to it; as, Corinthi Achaia urbe ; At Corinth, a city of 
Achaia. Tac. See §§2'il and 254, Rem. 3. 

Rem. 8. A proper name, after nomen or cognSmen^ with a verb followed 
by a dative, is sometimes put in apposition to the dative, rather than to 
nomen or cognomen; as, Nomen Areturo est mild, I have the name 
Areturus. Plaut. Qui nunc cognomen lulo addltur. \ irg. Cut Lgerio 
indilum nomen. Liv. 

R r m 9 A clause may supply the place of one of the nouns ; as,Cogltct 
fcatorem institui— rem arduam ; Let him reflect that an orator is training— 
a ditlicult thing. Quinct. _ 

Rem 10 Sometimes the former noun denotes a whole, and its parts 
are expressed by the nouns in apposition with it; as, Oncraruz j>ars max- 
ima adJEeimUrumf-alimadversus urbem ipsam delata sunt ; The ships ot 
burden were carried, the greatest part, to ^gimurus,-others opposite 
to the city itself. Liv. Pictores et poetce suum quisque opus a vulgo con- 
siderari vult. Cic. In the following example, quisque is in the nomina- 
tive, though the word with which it is in apposition is in the ablative :— 
Muftis sibi quisque imperium petentlbus. Sail. 

To this rule may be subjoined that which relates to the agreement ot 
interrogative and responsive words. 

Rem. 11. The principal noun or pronoun in the answer to 
a question, must be in the same case with the corresponding in- 
terrogative word ; as, . 

Quis herus est tibi ? Amphitruo, so. est. Who is your master? Amphit- 



o Vis) Plaut. Quid quterisl Librum, sc. quaro. What are you 
cine for ? A book. Quota hard vcaisti? Sexta. At what hour did you 



looking for ? A book 
come ? At the sixth 



Note 1 Instead of the genitive of a substantive pronoun, the corre- 
sponding possessive pronoun is often used, agreeing with its noun; as, 
Cuius est liber ? Mens, (not Met.) (See § 211 , Hem 3.) . Socujnm for gen. 
cuius • Cujum^ectts? an Melibozi? Won; varum JEgonvs. Virg. 

rE 2 Sometimes the rules of syntax require the responsive to be 
in a different case from that of the interrogative ;_ as, Quant! emisti? 
Viginti minis. Damnatusne es furti? find alio crnnine. See §§ &>A 
and 217. 



IC'; SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. ^ 205.1 



ADJECTIVES. 

_;)/>. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles, 
with their nouns, in gender, number, and case; as, 

Bonus rir, A good man. Bonos viros, Good men. 

Benigna muter, A kind mother. Vana leges, Useless laws. 
TrisU ilium. A sad war. Minacia verba, Threatening words. 

amissd, Hope being lost. Hccc res, This thing. 

.No ri. 1 . An adjective, participle, or pronoun, may either modify a noun, 
or, with the verb sum, constitute a predicate. The rule for their agree- 
ment, in both cases, is, in general, the same. 

Note 2. In the following remarks, the word adjective is to be consid- 
ered as including participles and adjective pronouns, unless the contrary 
is intimated. 

Remark 1. An adjective also agrees with a substantive pronoun, 
taking its gender from that of the noun for which the pronoun stands; 
as, Ipse capellas BBger ago, sc. cgo,J\felibccus; (I) myself, sick, am driving 
my goats. Virg. Ut se totum ei traderet. Nep. O me misSrum (spoken 
by a man), miseram vie (by a woman). So salvi sumus, saltai sumus, sc. 
nos, masculine or feminine. 

In general propositions which include both sexes, the pronouns are 
considered masculine; as, Nosfrvges consumere nati. Hor. 

Rem. 2. An adjective, belonging to two or more nouns, is 
put in the plural ; as, 

Lupus et agnus siti compulsi, A wolf and a lamb, constrained by thirst. 
Phsed. Skitia Sardiniaque amissae. Liv. 

When the nouns are of different genders, 

(1.) If they denote living things, the adjective is masculine 
rather than feminine; as, 

Pater mild et mater mortui sunt, My father and mother are dead. Ter. 
So uterque in the sing. Procumbit uterque, sc. Deucalion et Pyrrha.Ov'id. 

(2.) If they denote things without life, the adjective is gen- 
erally neuter : as, 

His genus, a.tas, el oquentia prove cequalia fuere ; Their family, age, and el- 
oquence, were nearly equal. Sail. Regna, impcria, nobilitdtcs, honor es, dici- 
tim in casu sita sunt. Cic. Hide bella, rapinai, discordia cicilis, grata fuere. 
Sail. Aiiima atque animus, quamvis integra rccens in corpus cunt. Lucr. 

Note. When nouns denoting things without life are of the same gen- 
der (either masculine or feminine), but of different numbers, the adjective 
is sometimes neuter; as, Croeso ct rita ct patrimonii partes, ct urbs Barce 
concessa sunt. Just. ; sometimes also when both nouns are in the singu- 
lar number ; as, Vclocitus tt regio igndra tutata sunt. Sail. 

(3.) If one of the nouns denotes an animate, and another an 
inanimate thinnr, the adjective is sometimes neuter, and some- 
times it takes the gender of that which lias life ; as, 

Naves ct captlvos quae ad Chium capta eranl, The ships and captives 
which were taken at Chios. Liv. Numtdxe atque signa militaria obscurati 
sunt. Sail. Regem regnumque sua futura sciunt. Liv. 



£205. syntax. AJDJECTIVE9. L67 

Exc. to Rem. 2. The adjective often agrees with the ne 

noun, and is understood with the rest ; as, 

Sociis et rege recepto, Our companions and king bavingb en recovered. 
Virg. Salidem, UbCros, famam, fortHnas, esst canssimas. < ic. 

Nn,K A noun in the singular, followed by an ablative with cum, baa 
gmetimes a plural adjective ; as, FUiarn eumfilio accitos. Liv. Ilia cam 
Lauso lie Kumitore sati. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. An adjective (nullifying a collective noun, is often 
put in the plural, taking the gender of the individuals which the 
noun denotes ; as, 

Pars cert&re parati, A part prepared to contend. Virg. Pars per 

gVro 5 dilapsi suam quisque spem exsequentes. Liv. Suppler turba 

mani sine oindlee tuti. Ovid. This construction always occurs « ben the 
collective noun is the subject of a plural verb. 

Sometimes, though rarely, an adjective in the sm^rtakes trie sender 
tf the individuals;' as. Pars arduus aZ*is pulverulentus equisfunt. \ irg 

Some other nouns have an adjective of a different gender from their 
own referriner to the words which theyinclude; as. Lattum Cavuaque 
a L rro mulctatT; Latium and Capua were deprived of their land. Liv. 
Capita conjurationis virgis ca>si. Id. 

Him 4. Two adjectives in the singular are sometimes joined to a plu- 
ral noun; as, Maria Tyrrhenum atque Adriaticum, The Tuscan and 
Adriatic seas. Liv. In comic writers, an adjective or participle in the 
lingular is sometimes used with a plural pronoun; as, Aofrw prassente. 
Plant. Jlbsente nobis. Ter. 

Rem 5 A participle which should regularly agree with the subjecl of 
a proposition, when placed after the noun of the predicate, sometimes 
takes the render and number of the latter ; as, Won omnis error stultitm 
est dicenda; Not every error is to be called folly. Cic. Gens universa 
Vtiuti appelhiti. Liv. 

Rem G When the subject of an infinitive is omitted after a dative of 
the same signification, an adjective in the predicate, belonging to that sub- 
ject, is sometimes put in the dative ; as, Mild neghgenti ess* rum limit, 
i e. me nertigentem esse mild non licuit. Cic. Damihi justo sancto^e 
videri Hor. A noun is sometimes expressed with the adjective ; as 
Vobis necesse est fortlbus esse viris. Liv. The adjective often agrees with 
the omitted subject; as, ExpUit bonas esse vobis, sc. vos. ler. bi uvi 
' Romano licet esse Gaditanum. Cic. 

Rem. 7. (1.) An adjective is often used alone, especially in 
the plural, the noun, with which it agrees, being understood ; as, 
Boni sunt rari, sc. homines; Good (men) are rare. Ca-.sar suos misit, 
sc. milltes; Caesar sent his (soldiers). Dextra, sc. manus ; The right 
(hand) Pinguisque ferlnse, sc. carnis. Immortal.es, sc. Da. Jtmantium, 
sc kominumT Ilium indignant! similem, similemque minanti aspiceres, sc. 
homlni Vircr. Tibi primas defiro, sc. partes. Cic. Resplce prsctentum, 
sc. trmpus, which is often omitted. Cogaovi ex meorum omnium hteris> 
SC. amicorum. Cic. So patrial adjectives; as, Must ad 1 arthum Arme- 
niumque legati, sc. regem. In Tusculano, sc. pradio. 

Note 1 The noun to be supplied with masculine adjectives is commonly 
homines, but when they are.possessives, it is oftener amlci, milltes, cives. 
Note 2. The noun to be supplied is often contained in a preceding 
clause. 



168 SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. §205. 

(2.) An adjective in the neuter gender, without a noun, is often used 
substantively, where, in English, the word thing or things is to be sup- 
plied ; as, 

Triste lupus stabulis ; The wolf, a grievous (thing) to the folds. Virg. 
Labor omnia xincit; Labor overcomes all (things). Id. Plcrique vana 
miniiitur. Tac. Qua? cum ita sint. Cic. 

Note. Instead of thing or things, other words may sometimes be sup- 
plied, as the sense requires. With a preposition, neuter adjectives form 
adverbial phrases; as, A primo, At first. Plaut. Per ?nutua, Mutually. 
V irg. Ad hoc, or Ad hcec, Moreover, besides. 

(3.) Adjectives used without nouns often have adjectives agreeing with 
them ; as, Alia omnia, All other (things). Plin. Familiaris meus. Cic. 
Jniquus noster. Id. Justa funebria. Liv. Jovis omnia plena. Virg. 
See § 201, III. Rem. 6. 

Rem. 8. Imperatives, infinitives, adverbs, clauses, and words consid- 
ered merely as such, may be used substantively, and take a neuter adjec- 
tive; as, Supremum vale dixit, He pronounced a last farewell. Ovid. 
Velle suum cuique est. Pers. Cras istud quando venit 1 Mart. Excepto 
quod non simul esses, cetera Icetus. Hor. 

Rem. 9. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, instead of agreeing with 
their nouns, are sometimes put in the neuter gender, with a partitive 
signification, and their nouns in the genitive ; as, Multum tempbris, for 
multum temp us ; much time. Id rei, for ea res; that thing. So plus 
eloquenticB, the other form not being admissible with plus. (See § 110.) 
Neuter adjectives are used in like manner in the plural ; as, Vana rerum, 
for vance res. Hor. Pleraque humandrum rerum. Sail. But in some such 
examples, the adjective seems to be used as noticed in Rem. 7, (2.) ; as, 
Acuta belli. Hor. Telluris operta. Virg. 

The adjectives thus used in the singular, for the most part, signify 
quantity. See § 212, Rem. 3, Note 1. 

Rem. 10. A neuter adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the 
nominative or accusative, both singular and plural ; as, Magnum stridens. 
Virg. Arma horrendum sonuere. Id. Multa deos venerdti sunt. Cic. 
See § 192, II. 4, (b.) 

Rem. 11. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective; as, Incola turba 
vocant. Ovid. Nemo miles Romdnus. Liv. 

An adverb is also sometimes used as an adjective ; as, Heri semper 
Icnitas, for sempiterna. Ter. 

Piem. 12. An adjective or adjective pronoun, used partitively, stands 
alone, and commonly takes the gender of the genitive plural, which 
depends upon it; but when it is preceded by a noun of a different 
gender, to which it refers, it usually takes that gender, but sometimes 
that of the genitive; as, Elephanto bclludrum nulla est prudeniior, No 
beast is wiser than the elephant. Cic. Indus, qui est omnium fluminum 
maximus. Cic. Velocisslmum omnium animalium est delphlnus. Plin. 
See § 212, Rem. 2. 

When a collective noun follows in the genitive singular, the adjective 
takes the gender of the individuals which compose it; as, Vir fortissimus 
nostra:, civitdtis, The bravest man of our state. Cic. Maximus stirpis. Liv. 

Rem. 13. When a possessive pronoun or adjective is used instead of 
the genitive of its primitive or of its corresponding noun (see § 211, Rem. 
3 and 4), an adjective agreeing with that genitive is sometimes joined with 



§206. syntax. — adjectives; relatives. L69 

such possessive; as, Solius meumpeccdtum corrtgi non potest, The faull of 
me alone cannot be corrected. Cic, Noster duorum eventus. Liv. Tuum 
ipeius studium. Cic. Pugna Romana stabllis suo pondtre incumbentium 

in hunt cm. Liv. 

Sometimes a noun in the genitive is expressed, in apposition to the 
substantive pronoun for which the possessive stands; as, Pectus tuum, 
homlnis simpllcis. Cic. 

Rem. 14. An adjective, properly belonging to the genitive, is some- 
times made to agree with the noun on which the genitive depends, and 
vice versd ; as, JEdificatidnis tuse consilium for tuuin, Your design of 
building. Cic. Accusantes violati hospitii foedus, for violdtum. Liv. Ad 
inajora initio, rerum ducenttbus fatis, for majorum. Id. lis nominlbus civi- 
tdtum, quibus c.t civitaVtbus, etc., for edrum civitdtum. Caes. 

Rem. 15. An adjective agreeing with a noun is sometimes used, in- 
stead of an adverb qualifying a verb, especially in poetry ; as, Ecce venit 
Tcl&mon properus ; Lo, Telamon comes in haste. Ovid. La;ti pacem agi- 
tabdmus, for lebtk. Sail. JEntas sc matutlnus agebat, for mane. Virg. 

So null us is used for omnlno non ; as, Memini tametsi nullus moneas, 
Though you do not suggest it. Ter. Prior, primus, propior, j>roximvs, 
solus, vnus, vltlinus, multus, totus, princcps, and some others, are used in- 
stead of their neuters, adverbially ; as, Priori Remo augurium venisse fer- 
tur. Liv. This is sometimes done, for want of an adverb of appropriate 
meaning ; as, Pronus cecidit. Ovid. Frequentes convenerant. Sail. 

In such expressions, tu, in the nominative, sometimes takes an adjec- 
tive in the vocative, and vice versd ; as, Sic venias hodierne. Tibull 
Salve, primus omnium parens patriae appellate. Plin. 

Rem. 16. When several adjectives, each independently of the other, 
qualify a noun, if they precede it, they are almost always connected by one 
or more conjunctions ; as, Multd etvarid et copiosd oratione. Cic. If they 
follow it, the conjunction is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted ; 
as, Vir alius et excellens. Cic. Actio, varia, vekemens, plena veritdtis. Id. 
Rut when one of the adjectives qualifies the noun, and another the 
complex idea formed by the first with the noun the conjunction is always 
omitted ; as, Periculosisslmum civile helium, A most dangerous civil 
war. Cic. Malam domcstlcarn disoiplindm. Id. So with three or more 
adjectives; Externos multos claros viros nomindrem. Cic. See § 201, 
III., Rem. G. 

Rem. 17. The adjectives primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, 
'intimus, infimus, imas, summits, supremus, rcUquus, and cetera, 
often signify the first part, the middle part, &c. of a thing ; as, 

Media nox, The middle of the night. Surnma arbor, The highest part of 
a tree. Supremos montes, The tops of the mountains. But these adjec- 
tives frequently occur without this signification ; as, Ab extremo cornplexu, 
From the last embrace. Cic. Infimo loco, Of the lowest rank. Id. 

Rem. 18. The participle of the compound tenses of verbs, used imper 
sonally in the passive voice, is neuter ; as, Ventum est. Cic. Itum est in 
viscera terra. Ovid. 

RELATIVES. 

$206. Rem. 19. Relatives agree with their antece- 
dents in gender and number, but their case depends on the 
construction of the clause to which they belong ; as, 

Puer qui legit, The boy who reads. Animal quod currit, The animal 
15 



170 SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; RELATIVES. § 200. 

which runs. I •'< ra quas dedi, The letter which I gave. Non 5?/??/ qualia 
tram, I am not such as 1 was. So Deus cujus muiure rirlmus, cui null.ua 
est similiSf quem collmus, a quo facta sunt omnia, est aternus. .-Iddictus 
Hermippo, it ub hoe ductus est. JlquXlo, quantus frangit ilXces. llor. 

Note. This rule includes all adjectives, participles, and adjective pro- 
nouns which relate to a noun in a preceding clause. Its more common 
application, however, is to the construction oi* the relative qui. 

The relative may be considered as placed between two cases 
of the same noun, either expressed or understood, with the for- 
mer of which it agrees in sender and number, and with the lat- 
ter in gender, number, and case. 

(1.) Sometimes both nouns are expressed : as, 

Kraut omnino duo itinera, quibus itinerlbus domo exire posseni ; There 
were only two routes, by which routes they could leave home. Civs. 
CrudelissXmo bello, quale belluni nulla unquam barbaria gessit. Clc. 

(2.) Usually the antecedent only is expressed'; as, 
Anhnum rege, qui, nisi parct, imperat ; Govern your passions, which 
rule unless they obey. Hor. Tantce multitudlnis, quantain capit urbs nostra, 
concur sus est ad me foetus. Cic. Quot capitum vivunt, totXdem sludiOrum 
millia. Hor. 

(3.) Sometimes the latter noun only is expressed, generally 
when the relative clause precedes that of the antecedent ; as, 

Quibus de rebus ad me scripsisti, coram videbimus ; In regard to the 
things of which you wrote to me, we will consider when we meet. Cic. 
la quem primum egressi sunt locum, Troja vacatur. Liv. Quanta vi expe- 
tunt, tanta defendunt. Quales<^e visus eram vidissc viros, ex or dine talcs 
aspicio. Ovid. 

To this head may be referred such examples as the following : — Qui mens 
amor in tc est, i. e. pro meo amove qui in te est; Such is my love for you. 
Cic. Qua? tua est virtus, expugndbis, i. e. pro tua virtute, &c. 

(a.) The place of the antecedent is sometimes supplied by a demonstra- 
tive pronoun, especially when the cases are different ; as, Ad quas res 
aptissimi erimus, in iis potissimum claborabimus. Cic. So by ibi. Sail. 

(b.) Sometimes the latter noun only is expressed, even when the relative 
clause does not precede ; as, Quis non muldrum quas amor curas habet, 
luce inter obliviscitur ? Hor. 

(4.) Sometimes neither noun is expressed ; this happens 
especially when the antecedent is designedly left indefinite, or 
when it is a substantive pronoun ; as, 

Qui bene latuit, bene vixit, sc. homo ; (He) who has well escaped notice, 
has lived well. Ovid. Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum col- 
legisse juvatf sc. homines; There are whom it delights, &c. Hor. Non 
habeo quod tc accusem, sc. id propter quod. Cic. JYon solum sapic?is 
videris qui hinc absis, sed etiam bedtus, sc. tu. Cic. 

(o.) The relative is sometimes either entirely omitted ; as, Urbs antlqua 
fait ; Tijrii tenuere coloni, sc. quam or earn; There was an ancient city 
(which) Tyrian colonists possessed (Virg.) ; or, if once expressed, is after- 
wards omitted, even when, if supplied, its case would be different; as, 
Bocchus cunt peditibus, quos films ejus adduxe'rat, neque in priore pugnd 
adfuerant, Romanos invadunt, for el qui non in priore, &c. Sail. 



§206. syntax. — adjectives; relatives. 171 

(6.) (/i.) The relative sometimes takes the case of the antecedent, in- 
stead oi" its own proper case; as. Cian scribas it allquid agas eOrum, quo- 
rum eons t€sti, for qua. Cic. Rajttim quibus quisque y/"/< /■«/ < 
• quisque ejf em potirat, cldtis. Liv. 

(A.) The antecedent likewise sometimes takes the case of the relative; 
|b, I rbem, quam stutuo vestra <st. for urbs. Virg. Naucratem, quern con- 
ninrc rulm, in navi non erat. Plaut. Sed is turn, quern quteriSf ego 

sum. 111. 

These constructs >ns are said to occur by attraction. 

(7.) An adjective, which properly belongs to the antecedent, is some- 
times placed in the relative clause, and agrees with the relative ; as, Inter 
joe •.•••. quos inconditos jaciunt, for jocos inconctltos, quos, &c. ; Amidst the 
rude jests which they utter. Liv. Verbis t qua magna volant. Virg. Co- 
lore, quem multurn habet. Cic. 

This is the common position of the adjective, when it is a numeral, a 
comparative, or a superlative ; as, Nocte quam in terris ultlmam egit, The 
last night which he spent upon earth. JEsculapius } qui primus vulnusob- 
ligavisse dicitur, Cic. ConsiUis purr, quse nunc pulchemmu Nantes dot 
senior. Virg. Some instances occur in which an adjective belonging to 
the relative clause, is placed in that of the antecedent; as, Cum venissent 
ad rttilii Volaterrana, quae nominantur. Cic. 

(S.) When to the relative is joined a noun, explanatory of the 
antecedent, but of a different gender or number, the relative 
agrees with that noun ; as, 

Santdnes non longe a Tolosatiumfinlhus absurd, qua civllas est inprovin- 
rid, The Santones are not far distant from the borders of the Tolosates, 
which state is in the province. Ca?s. Ante comitia, quod teinpus kaud longh 
aberat. Sail. 

(9.) If the relative refers to one of two nouns, denoting the 
same object, but of different genders, it agrees with either ; as, 

Flumen est Arar quod in Rhoddnum influit. Cods. Adjlumen Ozum per- 
ventutnest, qui turb'ulus semper est. Curt. 

(10.) When, in a relative clause containing the verb sum or a 
verb of naming, esteeming, &-c, a noun occurs of a different 
gender from the antecedent, the relative agrees with either ; as, 

JVaturai vultus quem dixere Chaos, The appearance of nature which they 
called chaos. Ovid. Genus homlnum quod Heldtes vocdtur. Nep. Animal, 
quem vocamus homlnem ; The animal whom we call man. Cic. Locus in 
carcerc, quod Tullianum appellator. Sail. Pecunidrum conquisitio ; eos 
esse belli civllis nervos dictitans Mucidnus. Tac. 

(11.) The relative sometimes agrees with a noun, either equi- 
valent in sense to the antecedent, or only implied in the preced- 
ing clause ; as, 

Abundantia edrum rcrnm, quag mortdlcs prima puta.nt, An abundance 
of those things, which mortals esteem most important. Sail. Fatdle mon- 
strum, qua 1 , &c., sc. Cleopatra. Ilor. 

(a) A relative 1 or demonstrative pronoun, referring to a collective noun, 
or to a noun which only in a figurative sense denotes a human being, some- 
times takes the gender and number of the individuals which the noun de- 
notes ; as, Equitdtum, quos. Sail. Genus, qui premuntur. Cic. — Senatus 
— ii. Sail. .MoasLruni, qui. Cic. 



172 SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; DEMONSTRATIVES, &C. 

(12.) The antecedent is sometimes implied in a possessive pronoun ; as, 
Omncs lauddre fortunas meas, qui natum tali ingenio prceditum haberem ; 
sc. mci ; All were extolling- my foitune, who had a son endowed with 
such a disposition. Ter. Nostrum consilium laudandum est, qui, etc. 
Cic. : or in a possessive adjective ; as, Serclli tumvltu, quos. Caes. 

(13.) Sometimes the antecedent is a proposition, and then the relative 
is commonly neuter ; as, Postremd, quod d/jficillimum inter mortdles, glorid 
invidiam vicisti ; Finally, you have overcome envy with glory, ichich, 
among men, is very difficult. Sail. Equidem exspectdbam jam tuas litcras, 
idque cum multis. Cic. 

In such instances, id is sometimes placed before the relative pronoun, 
referring to the idea in the antecedent clause ; as, Sive, id quod constat, 
Platonis studiosus audiendi fuit. Cic. Diem consumi volebant, id quod 
feccrunt. Id. 

Sometimes a relative referring to a clause, agrees with a noun following: 
as, Idem, velle atque nolle, ea demum firma amic'itia est. Sail. 

(14.) Quod, relating to a preceding statement, and serving the purpose 
of transition, is often placed at the beginning of a sentence after a period. 
It is thus used especially before si and nisi, and sometimes before uilnam, 
ut, ne, ubi, cum, contra, and nunc ; as, Quod si mundum ejficere potest con- 
cur sus a tomorum, cur p or txcum, cur templum, cur domum, cur urbem nGn 
potest ? In regard to which, if the concourse of atoms can produce a world, 
why, &c. Cic. Quod te per genium obsecro, vita me reddc priori. Hor. 
Quod utinam ilium, cvjus impio facinore in has miserias projectus sum, 
eadem hac simulantem videum. Sail. 

Quod, in such examples, seems to be an accusative, with propter or ad 
understood. 

(15.) If the relative refers to two or more nouns of different genders, 
its gender will be determined by Rem. 2; as, Kinus et Scmir a mis, qui 
Babyldna condiderant ; Ninus and Semiramis. who had founded Babylon. 
Veil. Crcbro fundli et tibicine, quae sibi sumpserat. Cic. Ex summd 
l&tiiid atque las chid, qua? diuturna quies pepcrerat. Sail. 

(1G.) The relative adjectives quot, quantus, qualis, are construed like the 
relative qui. They have generally, in the antecedent clause, the corre 
sponding words, tot, tantus, talis ; but these are often omitted. 

(17.) Qui, at the beginning of a sentence, is often translated like a de- 
monstrative ; as, Qua? ciim ita sint, Since these (things) are so. Cic. 



DEMONSTRATIVES, INDEFINITES, &c. 

<§> %OT. Rem. 20. The adjective pronouns often agree with a 
noun expressed, instead of another noun understood ; as, JVec solos 
tangi.t Jkrtdas iste dolor, Nor does that grief (i. e. grief on that account) 
affect the sons of Atreus alone. Virg. 

Rem] 21. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used where a 
corresponding word in English is unnecessary ; as, Quern neque fides, ncque 
jusjurandum, neque ilium misericordia, repressit ; Whom neither fidelity, 
nor an oath, nor pity, has restrained. Ter. 

Rem. 22. The neuters of the demonstrative pronouns are sometimes 
used in apposition with a dependent clause ; as, Hoc tibi pcrsuadcasvelivi, 
me nihil omisisse ; I wish you to be persuaded of this — that I have omitted 
nothing. So also the demonstrative adverbs sic and ita. 

Rkm. 23. Hie refers to what is near, ille to what is remote. Hence, 
of two things mentioned before, hie commonly refers to the latter, ille to 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES , DEMONSTRATIVES, &C. 173 

the former ; as, Ignavia corpus hebetat, labor Jirmat ; ilia maturam senectu- 
tem, hie longam adolcscentiam reddit: Sloth enervates the body, labor 
strengthens it; the former produces premature old age, the latter protract- 
ed youth. Cels. 

Yet this rule is not always observed ; as, Sic deus et virgo est ; hie spe 
celer, ilia limore. Ovid. Sometimes hic.hic are used instead of hic.iUe. 
So ille. ..ille sometimes denote " the one. ..the other." 

When more than two persons or things are spoken of, ille refers to the 
mcjt remote, iste to a nearer, and hie to the nearest object. Hence, in let- 
ters, hie and its derivatives are used of the writer; iste and its derivatives 
of the person addressed ; ille, &c, of some other person or thing. See 
§ 191, Rem. 2. 

Rem. 24. Ille is used to denote that which is of general notoriety ; as, 
J\tagno illi Mexandro similllmus, Very like Alexander the Great. Veil. 
Medea ilia. Cic. Ille is sometimes translated this; as, Unum Mud dico, 
This only I say. Cic. 

Rem. 25. Iste often denotes contempt; as, Impediebantur ed lege, quam 
idem iste tuler at.... the same wretch. Cic. Sometimes, on the contrary, it 
means so great ; as, Qiim ista sis auctoritdte, Since you are of so great 
authority. Cic. 

Rem. 26. Is does not, like hie, ille, and iste, denote the place or order of 
the object to which it relates, but refers to something already mentioned 
or to be defined by the relative qui. Hie. is, or ille, may be used in this way 
before the relative, but only hie or is after it ; as, Qui docet, is discit, or hie 
discit, but not ille discit, unless some individual is referred to. 

Is has sometimes the sense of talis, such ; as, Neque enim tu is es, qui 
quid sis nescias ; Nor are you such a person as to be ignorant what you 
are. Cic. ; sometimes of idem; as, vos-ii. Cic. Manil. 12. 

Is with et or que is emphatic, equivalent to the English " and that too;" 
as, Priodtas causas, et eas tenues agimus ; We manage private causes, and 
those unimportant. Cic. Erant in Torqudto plurimm liter a nee ea3 vulgd- 
res. Id. So without et; Urbdna plebes, ea vero prceceps ierat. Sail. 

Rem. 27. Idem, as denoting a subject which stands in equal relations to 
two different predicates, often supplies the place of item or etiam, also, or of 
tamen, yet, if the things are apparently inconsistent; as, Musici, qui erant 
quondam ildem poetce; Musicians, who formerly were poets also. Cic. 
Euphrates et Tigris magno aqudrum divortio iter per currant ; ildem (and 
yet) pauldtim in arctius coe'unt. 

Idem is sometimes repeated in the sense of " at once," denoting the 
union of qualities which might be thought incompatible ; as, Fuere quidam 
qui ildem ornate ildem versfite dicerent, There have been some who could 
speak at once elegantly and artfully. Cic. 

" The same as" is variously expressed in Latin, by idem with qui, ae or 
atque, quasi or ut ; as, Verres idem est qmfuit semper, Verres is the same 
as he has always been. Cic. Vita est eadem ac fait. Liv. Disputationem 
exponimus iisdem/ere verbis ut actum est. Cic. 

Rem. 28. Ipse, when used with a substantive pronoun taken reflexively, 
agrees either with such pronoun or with the subject of the proposition, 
according as either is emphatic ; as, Jlgam per me ipse, I will do it myself. 
Cic. Medici ipsi se curare non possunl. Sulpic Se ipsos omnes naturd 
diligunt. 

Ipse is sometimes used as reflexive without sui ; as, Omnes boni, quan- 
tum in ipsisfuit, Casdrem occiderunt. Cic. 

Ipse, with nouns denoting time or number, expresses exactness ; as, 
15* 



17 1 SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES \ DEMONSTRATIVES, &C. 

Cum ipsifl nonis Si rflZis, Exactly on the fifth of August. Cic. Triginta 
i. Thirty whole days IkkI elapsed. Id. 

Rem relative quicunquexa - used as equivalent to 

■ . . . : -' qu Lcunq andbo, What 

ired 1 will cure' by every possible means. Cic. Yet possum is 

upplied ;— -" in whatever way 1 can." So qvisquis is occa- 

iil as an indefinite pronoun. 

Rem. .'I quispiam are particular, corresponding to the 

English : as, Hered utia, qua morte alicujus ad quem- 

piani perv't nit jure; An inheritance is property which, at the death of" some 
one, falls to some (other) one by law. Cic. Multi sine doctfind allquid 
omnium genSrum it artium conscquuntur. id. 

Rem. 31. Quisquam, any one, and ullus, any, are universal: they ore 
used in propositions which involve a universal negative, or which express 
an interrogation with a negative force, or a condition (usually with si or 
quasi); also, after comparatives, after the adverb viz, and the preposition 
is, Neque ex castris Catilince quisquam omnium disccsserat, Nor had 
any one departed from the camp of Catiline. Sail. jXec ullo casu potest 
contingere, ut ulla intermissio jiat officii. Cic. An quisquam potest sine 
'Uio/te mentis irasci ? Id. Tetrior hie tyr annus Syracusanis fuit, 
qua in quisquam superiorum. Id. Viz quidquam spei est. Sen. 

Uilus is properly an adjective, but it may be used, like any other adjec- 
tive, with a noun understood. Quisquam is commonly used without a noun, 
except it is a word denoting a person ; as, Cuiquam civi, To any citizen. 
Cujusquam oratoris eloquenttam. Nemo is often used for nulius ; as, nemo 
pictor, nemo adoleseene, and even homo nemo. Cic. 

Rkm. 32. Alius, like ullus, though properly an adjective, is sometimes 
used like a pronoun. It is often repeated, or joined with an adverb deriv- 
ed from it, in the same proposition, which may be translated by two sepa- 
rate propositions, commencing respectively with " one. ...another ;" as, 
Aliud aliis vidttur optimum, One thing seems best to one, another to ano- 
ther. Cic. Aliis aliunde periculum est, Dange/ threatens one from one 
source, another from another ; or, Danger threatens different persons from 
different sources. Ter. Dionysium allter cum aliis de nobis locittuvi audit- 
bam. Cic. 

Alter is commonly used when two persons are spoken of; as, Uterque 
numerus alter altera de causa, habetur. Cic. 

Alius, repeated in different propositions, is also translated " one. ...an- 
other ;" as, Aliud agUur, aliud simuldtur, One thing is done, another pre- 
tended. Cic. 

Rkm. 33. Quid am differs from aliquis by implying that a person or 
thing, though indefinitely described, is definitely known ; as, Quidam de 
coikgis nostris, A certain one of our colleagues. Cic. Scis me quodam 
tempore Metapontum venisse tenon. Id. 

Quidam is sometimes used for some, as opposed to the whole, or to 
others ; as, Ezccsserunt urbe quidam, alii mortem sibi consciverunt ; Some 
departed from the city, others destroyed themselves. Liv. Hence it is 
used as a limitation ; as, Milvp est quoddam helium natural e cum corvo, .... 
a kind of warfare. Cic. 

Rem. 34. Quivis and quillbct, any one you please, are universal; as, 
Omnia sunt ejvsmddi quivis nt perspicSre possit, All are of such a nature 
that any one can perceive. Cic. Hie apud majorcs nostros adhibebdtur 
pent us, nunc quilibet. Id. A negative joined with them denies only the 
universality which they imply ; as, J\"on cuivis homlni contingit adlre Co- 



§ 208. SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; REFLEXIVES. 175 

rintbum, i. e. not to every man without distinction. Ilor. Cuiquum would 
have made the negation universal. 

Rkm. W'k Quisque signifies an-b, every one, and generally stands with- 
out a noun ; as. Quod CUique obtigit, id quisque tcncut ; Let each one keep 
what has fallen to each. (5ic. 

It is often used with two superlatives \ as, Optimum quidqne rarissimum 
est, The best things are the rarest. Cic. Ut quisque optime dixit, ita 
max! me dicendi dtfficuU&tem limit. Id. 

With primus, it denotes the first possible ; as, Vrimo quoquc ttmpurc, 
As BOOH as possible. Cic. 

lli m. 36. The possessives incus, tuus, nostcr, vestcr, and suits, are joined 
to nouns, to indicate an action or possession of the persons denoted by 
their primitives ; as, Tutus amor ineus est tibi, My love is secure to you. 
Ovid. Tuam via in dolere solco. Cic. 

But these pronouns are sometimes used when the persons to which 
they refer are the objects of an action, feeling, &c. ; as, Nam ncquc tud 
negligi nfid, ncquc odio id fecit tuo, For he did it neither through neglect 
nor hatred of you. Ter. See § 211, Rem. 3. 

These pronouns, especially when used as reflexives, are often omitted; 
as, Quo revertarf in patriamf sc. maim; Whither shall I return? to 
(my) country ? Ovid. Dcxtra munira porrcxit, sc. sud. Id. 

REFLEXIVES. 

^> 208. Rem. 37. Sui and suus properly refer to the sub- 
ject of the proposition in which they stand ; as, 

Oppidani /acinus in se ac suosf cedtun consciscunt, The citizens decide 
on a foul crime against themselves and their friends. Liv. 

They continue to be used in successive clauses, if the subject remains 
the same ; as. Ipse se quisque diligit, non ut aUquam a se ipse mercedem 
tztgut caritdtis sux, scd quod per se sibi quisque earns est. Cic. 

(I.) In dependent clauses, in which the subject does not remain the 
same, the reilexives commonly refer to the leading subject, when the 
thoughts, language, purposes, &c, of that subject are stated; as. Ariovis 
tus pru iiairit. n m sese Galtis, scd Gallos sibi belltnn intulisse ; Ariovistus 
declared that he had not made war upon the Gauls, but the Gauls upon 
him. Ca:s. Homtrum Colopbouii ciccm esse dicuut suum, The Colopho- 
nians say that Homer is their citizen. Cic. Tyrannus petivit ut se ad 
amicitiam tertium ascribcrent. Id. 

(2.) If, however, the leading subject, whose thoughts, &c, are expressed, 
is indefinite, the reflexives relate to the subject of a dependent clause ; as, 
Medeam prmiicuut (sc. homines) infugdfratris sui membra in iis locis, 
qud. se parens pcrsequcretur, dissipavisse. Cic. Ipsum regem tradunt 
opcrdtum bis sun is se abdidissc. Liv. 

(3.) When the leading verb is in the passive voice, the reflexive often 
refers not to its subject, but to that which would be its subject in the 
active voice ; as, A Cccsdre invitor ut sim sibi legdtus, i. e. Coesar mc in- 
vital ; I am invited by Ca?sar to become his lieutenant. Cic. 

So when the subject is a thing without life, the reflexive may relate to 
some other word in the sentence, which denotes a thing with life ; as, 
Canum tam fida custodia quid significat aiiud, nisi se ad homlnum com- 
maditdtcs esse generdtos? Cic. 

(4.) Instead of sui and suus, whether referring to a leading or a subor- 



176 SYNTAX. NOMINATIVE. V 209. 

dinate subject, ipse is sometimes used, to avoid ambiguity from the simi- 
larity of both numbers of sui, and to mark more emphatically than suns, 
the person to which it relates ; as, Jugurtha legdtos misit qui ipsi liberisqtm 
rdaiii pcterent, Jugurtha sent ambassadors to ask life for himself and 
his children. Sail. Ea molcstissimb ferre homines dcbent, qua. ipsorum 
culpd contractu sunt. 

(5.) In the plural number, with inter, se only is used, if the person or 
tiling referred to is in the nominative or accusative ; se or ipse, if in any 
other case ; as. Fratres inter se cum forma, turn moribus similes ; Brothers 
resembling each other both in person and character. Cic. Feras inter 
sese conciliat natura. Cic. Incidunt alt qua a doctis etiam inter ipsos 
mutud reprehensa. Quinct. 

(6.) When reference is made not to the subject of the proposition, but to 
some other person or thing, hie, is, or ille, is generally used, except in the 
cases above specified; as, Themistocles servum ad Xerxem mis it, uteinun- 
tiarct, suis verbis, adversarios ejus in fugd esse ; Themistocles sent his 
servant to Xerxes, to inform him (Xerxes), in his (Themistocles') name, 
that his (Xerxes') enemies were upon the point of flight. Nep. But 
when no ambiguity would arise, and especially when the verb is of the 
first or second person, sui and suvs sometimes take the place of the de- 
monstrative pronouns ; as, Suam rem sibi salvam sistam, I will restore his 
property entire to him. Plaut. 

On the contrary, the demonstratives are sometimes used for the reflex- 
ives ; as, Helvetii persuddeni Raurdcis, ut una, cum iis proficiscantur ; The 
Helvetii persuade the P«.auraci to go with them. Cees. In some instances, 
a reflexive and a demonstrative are used in reference to the same person ; 
as, Iia se gessit (sc. Ligarius) ut ei pacem esse expedirct. Cic. Sometimes 
the reflexives refer to different subjects in the same sentence ; as, Ariovis- 
tus respondit, nemlnem secum sine sua pernicie contendisse (Caes.) ; where 
se refers to Ariovistus, and sua to nemlnem. 

(7.) Suus often refers to a word in the predicate of a sentence, and is 
then usually placed after it; as, Hunc cives sui ex urbe ejecerunt, Him his 
citizens banished from the city. Cic. Titurius quum procul Ambiorlgem, 
suos cohortantem, conspexisset. Cass. 

Suus, and not hujus, &c, is used when a noun is omitted ; as, Octavhim, 
qucm sui (sc. amici) Ccesdrem salutdbant ; Octavius, whom his followers 
saluted as Cssar. 

Suus is also commonly used when two nouns are coupled by cum, but 
not when they are connected by a conjunction ; as, Ptolemaus amicos 
Dcmetrii cum suis rebus dimlsit; Ptolemy dismissed the friends of Deme- 
trius with their effects. Just. 

(8.) Suus sometimes denotes fit, favorable ; as, Sunt ct su&dona parcnti, 
There are likewise for my father suitable presents. Virg. Alphtnus utebd- 
tur popitlo sanb suo. Cic. Sometimes it signifies peculiar ; as, Molles sua 
thura Sabai, sc. mittunt, i. e. the frankincense for which their country was 
famous. Virg. Fessos sopor suus occupat artus, Id. 



NOMINATIVE. 

SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE AND VERB- 

§ 209. A verb agrees with its subject-nominative, in 
number and person ; as, 



<§> 209. SYNTAX. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 177 

Ego lego, I read. JYos legimus, We read. 

Tu scribis, Thou writest. Vos scribMis, You write. 

Equus currit, The horse runs. Equi currunt, Horses run. 

Note. The imperative singular is sometimes used in addressing several 
persons ; as, Hue natas adjlce septem. Ovid. Met. 6, 182. So adde, Liv. 26, 41. 
Remark 1. The nominatives ego, tu, nos, vos, are seldom expressed, 
the termination of the verb sufficiently marking the person ; as, cupio, I 
desire ; vivis, thou livest; habemus, we have. See § 147, 3. 

But when emphasis or distinction is intended, they are expressed ; as, 
Ego rcges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis ; I banished kings, you introduce 
tyrants. Auct. ad Her. Nos, nos, dico aperth, consules desumus. Cic. 
Tu cs patrunus, tu pater. Tei*. 

Rem. 2. The nominative of the third person is often omit- 
ted : — 

(1.) When it has been expressed in a preceding proposition: — 

(a.) As nominative ; as, Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego, et in oceanum 
injiuit (Cres.); or (b.) in an oblique case; as, Cursorem miserunt, ut id 
nuntidrct, sc. cursor. Nep. : or (c.) in a possessive adjective. Virg. iEn. 1. 672. 

(2.) When it is a general word for person or thing taken 

indefinitely. 

Thus homines is often omitted before aiunt, dicunt, ferunt, &c. ; as, Ut 
ahint, As they say. Cic. Maximb admirantur cum, qui pecunid non movt- 
tur. Id. 

This omission of the nominative is common in the clause preceding a 
relative ; as, Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mcevi, sc. homo ; May 
(he) who hates not Bavius, like your verses, Maevius. Virg. Vastdtur agri 
quod inter vrbem ac Fidenas est, sc. id spatium. Liv. Sunt quos juvat. ...sc. 
homines; There are (those) whom it delights. Hor. Est qui nee veteris 
pocula Masslci spernit, sc. homo. Hor. Here sunt quos and est qui are 
equivalent to quidam, atiqvis, or aliqui. So, Est quod gaudeas, There is 
(reason) why you should rejoice. Cic. JYeque erat cur fallere vellevt. Ovid. 
Est ubi id valeat. Cic. Est, cum non est satius, &c. Auct. ad Her. In 
the latter cases, the adverbs are equivalent to in quo, sc. loco, tempore. 

Rem. 3. The nominative is often wanting : — 

(I.) Before verbs denoting the state of the weather, or the 

operations of nature ; as, Fulgurat, It lightens. Plin. Ningit, 

It snows. Virg. 

(2.) Before the third person singular of the passive of neuter 

verbs, and of active verbs used impersonally; as, 

Favelur tibi a me, Thou art favored by me. Ejus orationi vehementer 

ah omnibus reclamdtum est. Cic. See § 184, 2. Actum est de imperio. 
A nominative, however, is expressed before the passive of some neuter 

verbs, which, in the active voice, are followed by an accusative; as, 

Pitgna pugnata est. Cic. See § 232, (1.) 

(3.) Before the neuter of the future passive participle with 
est; as, 

Dolendum est primum ipsl tibi, You yourself must first grieve. Hor. 
Or nudum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano. Juv. 



]7S SYNTAX. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. V 209. 

(1.) Before the impersonal verbs miseret, pcenitet, pudet, 
tcedet, and pigi t ; as, 

Eos ineptidrum p&riltet, They repent of their follies. Cic. Misiret te 
in, tui te nee mislret nee pudet. Plaut. Me civitdtis morum piget tadit- 
que. Sail. In such examples, the sense will sometimes permit us to supply 
fortuna, conditio, memoria, &c. So in the expression Venit in mentem t 
It came into mind; as, la mentem venit de specido, sc. cogitatiu, &c. 
Plaut. 

An infinitive or clause sometimes forms the subject of these verbs ; as, 
1\ id iiullo modo pudtiit facere, To do that by no means shamed you. Ter. 
Non pamttet me, quantum profecerim. Cic. 

(5.) When the subject of the verb is an infinitive or partici- 
ple (either alone or with other words), one or more propositions, 
or an adverb. (See § 201, IV. 1.) The verb is then in the 
third person singular ; as, 

Vacare culpa magnum est solatium, To be free from fault is a great con- 
solation. Neque est te fallere quidquam, To deceive } r ou in any thing is 
not (possible.) Virg. Mentlri non est maun. Plaut. Te non istud audi- 
visse mirum est, That you have not heard that is wonderful. Cic. '■ Sum- 
mum jus, summa injuria," factum est jam tritum sermone prov erbium. Id. 
Ni degeneratum in aliis huic quoque decori offecissct. Liv. Sin est ut velis 
manere illam apud te. Ter. Nee prof ait Hydra crescere per damnum, 
geminasque resumere vires. Ovid. Die mini, eras istud, Postame, qiumdo 
venit ? Tell me, Postumus, when does that to-morrow come ? Mart. 
Parumne campis atque Neptuno super fusum est Latlnz sanguinis? Hor. 

This construction is especially common with impersonal verbs ; as, 
Oratorem irasci non elecct ; That an orator should be angry, is not be- 
coming. Cic. Hoc fieri et oportet et opus est. Id. Me pedibus delectat 
claudere verba. Hor. Interest omnium recte facere. Cic. Casu accidit, 
ut, id quod Romoe audierat, primus nuntiaret. Id. Sometimes a neuter 
pronoun is interposed between a proposition and its verb ; as, Facere qua: 
libct, id est rcgem esse. Sail. 

(6.) Before potest, cccpit or caption est, incipit, desinit, debtt, 
solct, and videtur, when followed by the infinitive of an imper- 
sonal verb ; as, 

Pigere cum farti ccrvit, It began to repent him (i.e. he began to repent.) 
of his conduct. Just. Sapientia est una, qua prccceptrlce, in tranquillitdte 
vivi potest. Cic. Tadere solct avdros impendii. Quinct. 

Rem. 4. The verb is sometimes omitted ; as, 

Di meliorapiis, sc. dent; May the gods grant better things to the pious. 
Virg. Verhm hue fiactenus, sc. diximus. Cic. This omission is most 
common with the verb sum ; as. Nam Pohjdorus ego, sc. sum ; For I am 
Polydorus. Virg. Omnia pracldra rara, sc. sunt. Cic. So in compound 
tenses; as, Agro midctdti, sc. stmt. Liv. 

Rem. 5. The nominative is sometimes found with the pres- 
ent infinitive ; as, 

Interim quotidie Cesar JRduos frumentum flagitare, Meanwhile Ccesnr 
was daily demanding corn of the .-Kdui. Cbbs. Nos pavldi trepidare metu. 
Virg. Id korrendum fi rri. Id. In such cases, carpit or cccperunt is gene- 
rally supposed to be understood' sometimes other verbs may be supplied, 



§ :i()9. SYNTAX. SUBJECT-NOMINATIV*. 179 

m the infinitive seems to be used instead of the imperfect indic- 
ative. 

Rem. (J. The relative qui may refer to an antecedent either 
Of the first, second, or third person ; and its verb takes the per- 
son of the antecedent ; as, 

Ego qui lego, 1 who read. Tu qui scribis, Thou who writest. Equusqw 
curnt, The horse which runs. 

Rem. 7. Verbs in the first person plural, and the second 

person singular, are sometimes used to express general truths ; 
as, 

Quam multa facimus causd amicorum ! How many things we do (i. e. 
men do) for the sake of friends ! Cic. Si vis me flere, dolendum est ipsi 

tibi, Whoever wishes me, &c. J lor. 

Rem. 8. The accusative is sometimes used for the nominative by at- 
traction. See § 206, (G.) (b.) 

Rem. !». The verb sometimes agrees with the predicate nominative, 
especially if it precedes the verb ; as, Amantium ira, amoris integratio est, 
The quarrels of lovers are a renewal of love. Ter. ; and sometimes with 
the nearest subject of a subordinate sentence. Sail. Cat. 25. 

Hi m. ID. The vcrh sometimes agrees, not with the principal nomina- 
tive, hut with a nearer noun in apposition to it; as, Tungri, civitas I 
foul < m hahet insignem; The Tungri, a stale of Gaul, has a remarkable 
fountain. Plin. 

Rem. 11. A collective noun has sometimes a plural verb ; 
as, 

Pars epulis onerant mensas. Part load the tables with food. Virg. 
Turba ruunt. Ovid. Pars vtraque avldi erant. Liv. Jltria turba tenent j 
veniunt hce valgus euntque. Ovid. 

(1.) A plural verb, joined to a collective noun, usually expresses the ac- 
tion, &c, of the individuals which that noun denotes. In Cicero and 
Livy. this construction scarcely occurs in simple sentences ; but it is often 
used, when the subject of the verb is not expressed in its own, but in a 
preceding clause ; as, Hoc idem generi humdno cccnit, qudd in terra col- 
locati sint. Cic. 

(2.) When two or more clauses have the same collective noun as their 

subject, the verb is frequently singular in one, and plural in another; as, 

Jam ne node quidem turba ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosque carcerem 

intur. Liv. Gens eadem, quai tc crudeli Daunia bello insequltur, 

nos si pellant, nihil abfore credunt. Virg. 

(3.) Tantum, followed by a genitive plural, has sometimes a plural verb, 
like a collective noun ; as, Quid hue tantum hominum incedunt ? Why 
are so many men coming hither ? Plaut. 

(4.) A plural verb is often used after utcrque and quisque, pars. ...pars. 
and alius.... alium, or alter. ...alter am, on account of the idea of plurality 
which they involve ; as, Utcrque corum ex castris exercitum educunt, Each 
of them leads his army from the camp. Caes. Intimus quisque libertarian 
vineti abreptlgue (sunt.) Tac. Alius alium, ut pradium incipiant, circum- 
spectant. Liv. 

This construction may be explained by the following passage, where 



ISO SYNTAX. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. § 209. 

the plural is placed first, and then the singular, denoting its parts ; Ceteri } 
suo quisque tempore, aderunt. Liv. See § 204, Rem. 10. 

Rem. 12. Two or more nominatives singular, not in appo- 
sition, generally have a plural verb ; as, 

Furor imque mentem precipitant, Fury and rage hurry on (my) mind. 
Virg. Bum atas, metus, magister, prohibebant Ter. 

(1.) If the predicate belongs to the several nominatives jointly, the verb 
is always plural; as, Grammatice quondam ac muslce juncts fuerunt. 
Quint. 

(2.) A singular verb is often used after several nominatives 
singular, especially if they denote things without life ; as, 

Mens enim, et ratio et consilium in senlbus est. Cic. Benejicentia, lib- 
eralitas, bonitas,justitiafundltus tollltur. Id. This construction sometimes 
occurs with names of persons; as, Gorgias, Thrasymdchus, Protagoras, 
Prodlcus, Hippias in honore fuit. Cic. Cur Lysias et Hyperides amatur ? 

(3.) When one of the nouns is plural, the verb is generally so ; but 
sometimes it is singular, when the plural noun does not immediately pre- 
cede it; as, Dii ie penaies patrilque, et patris imago, et domus regia, ct in 
domo regale solium, et nomen Tarquinium creat vocat^ue regem. Liv. 

(4.) When each of the nominatives is preceded by et or turn, the verb 
agrees with the last ; as, Hoc et ratio doctis, et necessitas barbaris, et mos 
gentifois, etferis natura ipsa prasscripsit; This, reason has dictated to the 
learned, and necessity to barbarians, and custom to nations, and nature 
itself to wild beasts. Cic. Et ego, et Cicero meus fiagitabit. Id. Turn 
ffitas vires^we, turn avita gloria anlmum stimulabat. Liv. So when the 
subject consists of two infinitives; as, Et facere, et pati fortia, Romdnum 
est. Cic. With sen — seu, and tarn — quam the verb is plural. 

Unus et alter always takes a singular verb ; as, Dicit unus et alter 
Irevtte? , Two in succession speak briefly. Cic. Unus et alter assuitur 
pannus. Hor. So also scndtus populusque Romdnus. 

(5.) When the nominatives are connected by aut, sometimes 
the plural, but commonly the singular, is used ; as, 

Si Socrates aut Aniisthenes diceret, If Socrates or Antisthenes should 
say. Cic. Ut quosquc studium jirivdiim aut gratia occupaverunt. Liv. 

The plural is necessary with disjunctives, if the subject includes the 
first or second person ; as, Qndd in Decemciris ncque ego neque Ccesar 
habiti essemus. Cic. 

(6.) A nominative singular, joined to an ablative by the preposition cum, 
sometimes has a plural verb ; as, Bocchus, cum peditlbus, postremam 
Romanorum aciem mv admit; Bocchus, with his foot soldiers, attacks the 
rear of the Roman army. Sail. Ipse dux, cum aliquot principibus, ca- 
piuntur. Liv. 

(7.) If the nominatives are of different persons, the verb 
agrees with the first person rather than the second, and with 
the second rather than the third ; as, 

Si tu ct Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus ; If you and Tullia are 
well, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Hcec neque ego neque tu fecirnus. Ter 
Ego populusque Romdnus helium judlco facio^e. Liv. 

Yet sometimes the verb agrees in number and person with the nearest 



§ 210. SYNTAX. PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 181 

nominative, and is understood with the other; as, Vos ipsi et sendtus 
freqiiens restitit. This is always the case when the action of the verb is 
qualified with reference to each nominative separately ; as, Ego misZre, 
tufeliciter vivis. 

Rem. 13. The interjections en, ecce, and O, are sometimes 
followed by the nominative ; as, 

En Pridmus! Lo Priam! Virg. Ecce homo Catiemis! Cic. vir 
fort is atquc amicus! Ter. 

PRE DIC ATE -NOMINATIVE. 

§210. A noun in the predicate, after a verb neuter 
or passive, is put in the same case as the subject, when it 
denotes the same person or thing ; as, 

Ira furor brcvis est, Anger is a short madness. Hor. Ego vocor Lycon- 
ldes, I am called Lyconides. Plaut. Ego incedo regina, I walk a queen. 
Virg. Caius et Lucius fratres fuerunt. Cic. 

So when the subject is in the accusative ; Judicem me esse volo. Cic. 

Sometimes a dative, denoting the same object, both precedes and follows 
a verb neuter or passive. See § 227, Note 1. 

If the predicate noun has a form of the same gender as the subject, it 
takes that form ; as, Liccntia corruptrix est morum. 

Remark 1. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles, 
standing in the predicate, after verbs neuter or passive, and 
relating to the subject, agree with it in case. 

The gender and number of such adjectives, &c. are determined by § 205. 

Rem. 2. The noun in the predicate is sometimes in a different number 
from the subject ; as, Sanguis erant Lachrymce, Her tears were blood. Ovid. 

So when a subject in the singular is followed by an ablative with cum; 
as, Exsules esse jubet L. Tarquinium cum conjuge et liber is. Liv. 

Rem. 3. The verbs which most frequently have a noun, &c, in the 
predicate agreeing in case with their subject, are, 

(I.) The substantive verb sum ; as, Ego Jovis sum filius. Plaut. Disce 
■ esse pater. Ter. The predicate with sum may be an adverb of place, 
manner, &c. 

(2.) Certain neuter verbs, denoting position or motion ; as, cado, eo, 
cvddo, existo, fugio, incedo, jaceo, maneo, sedeo, sto, venio, &c. Thus, 
Rex circuibat pedes, The king went round on foot. Plin. Quos judiedbat 
non -posse oratdres evadere. Cic. Ego kuic causes patronus exsiiti. Cic. 

(3.) The passive of verbs denoting 

(a.) To name or call ; as, appellor, dicor, nonitnor, nuncupor, perhibeor, 
saJfttor, vocor. Thus, Cognomlne Justus est appelldtus, He was called by 
the surname Just. Nep. Aristaus olivai dicitur inventor. Cic. 

(b.) To choose, render, or constitute ; as, constiluor, creor, declarer, 
designor, ellgor, jio, reddor, renuncior. Thus, Dux a Romanis electus est 
Q. Fabius. Postquam ephebus factus est. Nep. 

(c.) To esteem or reckon ; as, censeor, credor, deprehendor, exisUmor, 
feror, habeor, judicor, memoror, numeror, putor, reperior, videor. Thus, 
Credebar sanguinis auctor ego. Ovid. Malim videri timidus quam pa- 
rum prudens. Cic. 
16 



182 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. § 211. 

Note 1. With several passives of the last class, when followed hy a 
predicate-nominative, &c, an infinitive of sum is expressed or understood; 
as, Aniens mild fuisse videor. Cic. Atilius prudens esse putabdtur. Id. 
So with dicor (to be said), and perhibcor ; as, Verus patrice. diceris esse 
pater. Mart. Hoc ne locutus sine mercede existimer. Phaed. 

Note 2. Audio is sometimes used by the poets like appellor ; as, Tu 
lexque paterae audisti coram. Hor. 

Rem. 4. A predicate-nominative is used after many other verbs, to 
denote a purpose, time, or circumstance of the action ; as, Comes additus 
JEolides, JEolides was added as a companion. Virg. Lupus obambulat 
nocturnus. Id. Appdret liquido subllmis in athere Niszis. Id. So with 
an active verb ; Audlxi hoc puer. Cic. Sapiens nil facit invltus Id. 
Rempublicam defendi adolescens. Id. 

Rem. 5. The noun opus, signifying need, is often used as a predicate 
after sum. It is, in such cases, translated by the adjectives needful, neces- 
sary, &c. ; as, Dux nobis et auctor opus est. Cic. Multi opus sunt boves. 
Varr. (Dixit) aurum et ancillas opus esse. Ter. 

Rem. 6. When the pronoun, which is the subject of an infinitive, is 
omitted, the case of the predicate is sometimes, in the poets, attracted into 
that of the subject of the verb on which the infinitive depends ; as, Uxor 
invicti Jovis esse nescis, i. e. te esse uxor em. Hor. Retulit Ajax esse Jovis 
pronepos. Ovid. The dative of the end often takes the place of the pred- 
icate nominative. See § 227. 

GENITIVE. 

GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 



§211. A noun which limits the meaning of another 
noun, denoting a different person or thing, is put in the 
genitive ; as, 

Amor gloria, Love of glory. Vitium irai, The vice of anger. 

Arma Achillis, The arms of Achilles. Kemorum custos, The guardian of 
Pater patriae, The father of the the groves. 

country. Amor liabcndi, Love of possessing. 

In the first example, amor denotes love in general; glorice limits the 
affection to the particular object, glory. Such universally is the effect of 
the genitive, depending upon a noun. See § 201, III. 

Remark 1. The genitive denotes various relations, the most common 
of which are those of Source ; as, Radii solis, The rays of the sun ; — 
Cause ; as, Dolor podagra;, The pain of the gout ;— Effect ; as, Artifcx 
mundi, The Creator of the world ;— Possession ; as, Domvs Catsaris, The 
house of Caesar ; — Object ; as, Cogitatio alicujus rei, A thought of some- 
thing ; — Purpose; as, Apparatus triumphi, Preparation for a°triumph ; — 
A whole ; as, Pars hominum, A part of men ;— Character ; as, Adoles- 
cens summa audacia, A youth of the greatest boldness ; — Material or 
component parts ; as, Monies auri, Mountains of gold ; Acervus scutorum, 
A heap of shields; — Time ; as, Frvmentum dierurn decern. Sail. 

Rem.2. The genitive is called subjective, when it denotes 
the subject of the action, feeling, &c, implied in the noun 



<§> 211. SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. ]83 

which it limits. It is called objective, when it denotes the 
object of such action, &,c. ; as, 

Subjective. Objective. 

Facta virorum, Deeds of men. Odium vitii, Hatred of vice. 

Dolor auimi, Grief of mind. Amor virtutis, Love of virtue. 

Junonis ira, The anger of Juno. Desiderium otii, Desire of leisure. 

Whether a genitive is subjective or objective, is to be determined by 
the meaning of the words, and by their connection. Thus, providentia 
Dei signifies the providence of God, or that exercised by him ; timor Dei, 
fear of God, or that exercised towards him. The same or similar words, 
in different connections, may express both significations. Thus, metus 
hostium, fear of the enemy, may mean that felt either by themselves or by 
their opponents. So vulnus Ulyssis (Virg.) denotes the wound which 
Ulysses had given ; vulnus JEnecc, (Id.) that which iEneas had received. 

When ambiguity would arise, instead of the objective genitive, a prep- 
osition, with an accusative or ablative, is commonly used ; as, Amor in 
rempubllcam,for reipublica ; Love to the state. Cic. Odium ergaRomdnos, 
for Romanorum. Nep. Cura de salute patriae, for salutis. Cic. Pratddtor 
ex sociis, for sociorum. Sail. 

Rem. 3. A substantive pronoun, which limits the meaning 
of a noun, is put in the genitive ; as, 

Cura mei, Care for me. Ovid. Pars tui, Part of thee. Id. Nostri nun- 
cius, Our messenger. Virg. Magna mei imago. Id. 

Instead of the subjective or possessive genitive of a substan- 
tive pronoun, the corresponding adjective pronoun is commonly 
used ; as, 

Cura mea, My care, i. e. the care exercised by me. Yet the genitive 
sometimes occurs ; as, Tui unius studio, By the zeal of yourself alone. Cic. 

Sometimes, also, an adjective pronoun occurs instead of the objective 
genitive ; as, Mea injuria, Injury to me. Sail. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the genitive of a noun, also, a possessive adjective is 
often used ; as, Causa regia, for causa regis. Cic. Henliajilius, for kcri 
jilius. Id. Evandrius easts, for Evandri. Virg. Herculeus labor, for 
Hcrculis. Plor. Civllis furor, for civium. Hot. Metus hostllis, Sail. 

Rem. 5. The dative is sometimes used like the objective 
genitive ; as, 

Exitium pecori, A destruction to the flock. Virg. Prcesidium reis, A 
defence to the accused. Hor. Decus amlcis. Id. _ Erit ille mihi semper 
Deus. Virg. Dicor tibi fratcr. Mart. Auctor fui senatui. Cic. Huic 
causae vatronus exstiti. Id. Quern exitum tantis malis sperdrent. Sail. 
Romanis imperdtor. Id. Murama legdtus Lucullo/ztt£. Cic. 

In these cases, the noun which is limited by the dative, denotes a char- 
acter, feeling, &c, and the dative the object towards which that character, 
&c, 'is exhibited or exercised. This construction sometimes occurs with 
verbal nouns, whose primitives are followed by the dative ; as, Obtempe- 
ratio leglbus, Obedience to laws. Cic. Traditio alteri. Id. In some 
instances, also, an accusative follows a verbal noun ; as, Quid tibi hanc 
curatio est rem ? Flaut. 

] . Instead of the possessive and subjective genitive, also, a dative is some- 
times vised, as the remote object of a verb ; as, Sese omnes jlentes Csesari 
ad pedes projccSrunt ; They all, weeping, cast themselves at the feet of 
Caesar. Ctes. Cui corpus porrigitur, For whom the body is extended, 
i, e. whose body is extended. Virg. Transfigttur scutum Pulfioni. Caes. 



184 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. *§> 211. 

Rem. G. When the limiting noun denotes a property, 
character y or quality, it has an adjective agreeing with it, and 
is put either in the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Vir exempli recti, A man of correct example. Liv. .Idol esc ens summa 
audacke. A youth of the greatest boldness. Sail. Fossa pedum viginti, A 
ditch of twenty feet. Cass. Pulrliritudine cximid femlna, A woman of 
exquisite beauty. Cic. Maximo natu films, The eldest son. Nep. So 
Qu/nquaginta annorum imperium. Id. Iter unius diei. Cic. (Julia 
tribus ct septuaginta annis. Tac. Fossam sex cubltis altam. Liv. 

Sometimes both constructions occur in the same proposition ; as, Lcn- 
tiilum nostrvm, eximia spe, summae virtutis adolescentem. Cic. Scrubis 
latus pedum duorum, alius dupondio ct dodrante. Plin. 

(1.) A genitive sometimes supplies the place of the adjective ; and the 
noun denoting the property, &c, is then always put in the ablative; as, 
Est bos cervi figura, ....of the form of a stag. Caes. Uri specie et colore 
tauri. Id. 

('2.) The genitive, in this sense, sometimes occurs without an adjective ; 
as, Homlncm non nauci. Plaut. Homo nihlli. Varr. So, Frutcx palmi 
ahitudlne. Plin. C'lari diglti polllcis crassitudlne. Cass. In winch 
examples unius may be understood with the genitives. 

Whether the genitive or ablative is preferable in particular cases, can 
only be determined by reference to classical authority. 

Note. Nouns denoting extent of time or space, after other nouns, 
are often put in the accusative. See § 236. 

Rem. 7. The noun limited is sometimes omitted ; as, misera sortis .' 
sc. homines; O (men) of wretched fortune! Lucan. .id Diana, sc. 
cedem. Ter. Hectoris Andromache, sc. uxor. Virg. Suspicionis vit.anda, 
sc. causd. Tac. Sofilius or Jilia; as Hannibal Gisgonis. 

The omitted noun may sometimes be supplied from the preceding 
words; as, Cujumpecus? an Melibad? Non; verum JEgonis, sc. pecus. 
Virg. An adjective is often expressed referring to the noun omitted ; 
as, Nullum virtus aliam mercedem desiderat, prater hanc (sc. mercedem) 
laudis. Cic. 

Rem. 8. The noun limited is often wanting in the predicate 
of a sentence after sum. This usually happens, 
(1.) When it has been previously expressed ; as, 
Hac domus est Cresaris, This house is Caesar's. JYomen aura tarn sape 
vocdtum esse putans Nympha. Ovid. Naves onerarias, quarum minor nulla 
erat duum millium amphorum, i. e. quarum minor nulla erat quam navis 
duum, &c. Cic. 

(2.) When it is a general word denoting a person, an animal, 
&c. ; as, 

Tliucydldcs , qui rjusdem atdtis fuit, sc. homo ; Thucydides, who was of 
the same age. Nep. Multum ei dctraxit, quod alienee erat civitdtis, sc. 
homo or civis. Id. Sunnni ut sini labor is efficiunt, sc. animal ia. Caes. 
(Claudius) somni brcrisslmi rrat. Suet. Mird sum ulacritdle. Cic. Vulgus 
ingenio moblli erat. Sail. Nan est juris sui. Lucan. Potestdtis sua esse. 
Liv. Suarumquc rerum er/nit. Id. 

(3.) When it is a general word denoting thing, for which the 
words part, property, duty, office, characteristic, &,c, are com- 
monly supplied ; as, 

Temerltas est jlor cutis atdtis, prudentia sencctutis, Rashness is (the char- 



§211. SVNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER SOUNS. 185 

acteristic) of youth, prudence of old age. Cic. r..<t hoc GalHea consuetu- 
finis. Css. Omnia hostium erant. .1 paucis emi, quod multOrum esset. 

Ball. This happens especially when the subject of the verb is an infinitive 

mood, ur an entire clause ; as, Jidolescentis est majores natu rever€ri } It is 

(the duty) of a youth to reverence the aged. Ovid. Cujustru homlnis est 
trrarc, null/us nisi insipientis, in enure persever&re. Cic. Pauperis tst 
numer&re pecus Ovid. JVegarit morisesse GrtecOrum, ut in conmvio virO- 
rum accumbl rent muliires. Cic. Nihil tamaquanda UberUttia esse. Liv. 
So when the veio is omitted; Tumcn officii iluxit, exordrc putrein, sc. 
esse. Suet. 

(4.) The same construction sometimes occurs after f«r/.9, and some other 
verbs ; as, slsiu Roinundrum facta est, Asia became (a possession) of the 
Romans. Just. Primum stipendium meruit annorum deeem septemque. 
Nep. Agrum sum ditidnis fecisse. Liv. 

(5.) The limited noun is sometimes wanting, when it is a general word, 
though not in the predicate after sum ; as, Ma gni formica liiboris, sc. ani- 
mal ; The ant (an animal) of great labor. Hor. So Ei venit in vicntcm 
poiesldtis ttuc, sc. vicmoria, or the like. Cic. 

(6.) The limited noun is wanting also, when, instead of the genitive, a 
possessive adjective or pronoun is used ; as, Humanum est errdre, To err 
is human. Ter. Ha partes fuSrunt tux. Cic. j\'un est mentlrimeum. Ter. 
See § 211, Rem. 3, and 4. 

Note. Grammarians differ in regard to the manner of supplying the 
word which is wanting, when it denotes a thing. Some suppose that 
vegotium is understood ; others supply qfficium, munus, opus, res, causa, &c. 
It seems, however, rather to be an instance of a construction common in 
Latin, to omit a noun when a general or indefinite idea is intended. See 
$ 205, Rem. 7, (2.) The words to be supplied in English are various, 
according to the connection. 

Rem. 9. The limiting noun is sometimes omitted ; as, Tria millia, 
sc. passuum. In most cases of this kind, an adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle, is expressed in the genitive. 

Rem. 10. Two genitives sometimes limit the same noun, one of which 
is commonly possessive or subjective, and the other objective ; as, Aga- 
memnonis belli gloria, Agamemnon's glory in war. Nep. Illius adminis- 
tratio provincial. Cic. Eorum dierum consuetudlne itineris nostri ezcrcl- 
tits perspectd. Cods. 

Rem. 11. Opus and asus, signifying need, are rarely limited by a gen- 
itive ; as, Argenti opus fuit, There was need of money. Liv. Ad consi- 
lium pensandum temporis opus esse. Id. Procemii non semper usus est. 
Quinct. Si quo operae eorum usus est. Liv. In a few instances, they are 
limited by an accusative ; as, Puero opus est cibum (Plaut.) ; Usus est 
homlnem" astidum (id.); but in general they are limited by an ablative. 
See § 243. 

Rem. 12. The relation denoted by the genitive in Latin, is, in English, 
generally expressed by of, or by the possessive case. The objective gen- 
itive may ollen be rendered by some other preposition ; as, Rcmedium 
dolGris, A remedy for pain. Injuria patris, Injury to a father. Descensus 
Jlccrni, The descent to Avernus. Ira belli, Anger on account of the 
war. Potestas rci, Tower in or over a thing. 

Note. Certain limitations of nouns are made by the accusative with a 
preposition, and by the ablative, either with or without a preposition. 
10 * 



18G SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER PARTITIVES <§> 212. 



GENITIVE AFTER PARTITIVES. 

§ -ZL2. Nouns, adjectives, adjective pronouns, and ad- 
verbs, denoting a part, are followed by a genitive denoting 
the whole ; as, 

Pars civitdtis, A part of the state. Nulla sororum, No one of the sis- 
ters. .Til quis pkilosophdrum, Some one of the philosophers. Quis morta- 
lium? Who of mortals? Major juvenum, The elder of the youths. Doc- 
tisslmus Romanorum, The most learned of the Romans. Muftum petunia, 
Much (of) money. Satis eloquential, Enough of eloquence. b'blnam 
gentium sumus ? Where on earth are we ? 

Note. The genitive thus governed denotes either a number, of which 
the partitive designates one or more individuals ; or a -whole, of which 
the partitive designates a portion. In the latter sense, it commonly fol- 
lows neuter adjectives and adjective pronouns, and adverbs. 

Remark 1. The nouns which denote a part are pars, nemo, 
nihil, &c. ; as, 

Nemo nostrum, No one of us. Omnium rerum nihil est agriculturd me- 
lius. Cic. 

Rem. 2. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, denoting a 
part of a number, including partitives and words used parti- 
tively, comparatives, superlatives, and numerals, are followed 
by the genitive plural, or by the genitive singular of a collec- 
tive noun. For the gender of the adjectives, See § 205, R. 12. 

(1.) Partitives; as,ulias, nullus, solus, alius, uter,uterque, utercunquc, 
utervis, uterilbet, neuter, alter, altcruter, allquis, quidam, quispiam, quisquis, 
qxiisque, quisquam, quicunque, unusquisque, quis ? qui ? quot ? quotus ? quo- 
tusquisque? tot, aliquot, nonnulli, plerique, mufti, pauci, medius. Thus, 
Quisquis deorum, Whoever of the gods. Ovid. Consilium alter, One of 
the consuls. Liv. Multi hominum, Many men. Plin. Medius omnium. Li v. 

(2.) Words used partitively ; as, Expediti militum, The light-armed 
soldiers. Liv. Superi deorum, The gods above. Hor. Sonde deorum. 
Virg. Degenercs canum. Plin. Piscium femlna. Id. 

(3.) Comparatives and superlatives ; as, Doctior juvenum. Oratoruvi 
pnestantissimus. 



(4.) Numerals, both cardinal and ordinal ; also the distributive 



sino-u: 






as, Equltum centum quinquaginta itUcrfccti, A hundred aud fifty oi' the 
horsemen were killed. Curt. Sapicntum octdvus. Hor. Singulos vestrum. 
Curt. 

Note 1. The comparative with the genitive denotes one of two in- 
dividuals or classes; the superlative denotes a part of a number greater 
than two ; as, Major fratrum, The elder of two brothers; Maxlmus Jra- 
trum, The eldest of three or more. 

In like manner, utcr, alter, and neuter, generally refer to two ; quis, alius, 
and nullus, to more than two ; as, Utcr nostrum? Which of us (two.') 
Quis vestrum ? Which of you (three or more r) 

Note 2. Nostrum and vestrum are used after partitives, &,c, in 
preference to nostri and vestri. So also when joined with omnium. 

Note 3. The partitive word is sometimes omitted ; as, Fics nobilium 
tu quoqucfontium, sc. unus. Hor. Ccntics sestertium, sc. ccntena millia. 



*§> 212. SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER PARTITIVES. 18*1 

Note 4. The noun denoting the whole, after a partitive word, u often 
put iii tlic ablative, with the prepositions </<■, e, ex, or in, or in the h 
ti ve, with ajmd or inter ; as, Nemo de iis. Alter ex censorlbus. Liv. t nus 
t\ tnultis. Cic. Acerrtmus ex senslbus. Id. Primus inter omnes. Vh 
i inter reges opulentissimus. Sen. A pad [Jelvetios nobilisslm'us. 

Note .">. The whole and its parts arc frequently placed in apposition, 
utively; as, Intert'ectores, pars in forum, pars Syracusas pcrgunt 
lav. See § 204, Rem. 10. 

-Notk I). Cuncti and omncs, like partitives, are Bometimes followed l»v ;i 
genitive plural; as, Attains Maceddnum fere omnibus persudsit, Attains 
persuaded almost all the Macedonians. Liv. Cunctos hominum. Ovid. 
Cunctas provinciarum. Plin. 

In the following passage, the genitive singular seems to he used like that 
of a collective noun : Totius autem injustitue nulla cupitalior est, iSlc. Cic. 
Off. 1, 13. The phrase Rem nulla modo probabllem omnium (0!c. Nat. 
Deor. 1, 27,) seems to be used for Rem nullo omnium modorum probabllem. 

Rem. 3. The genitive denoting a whole, may depend on a 
neuter adjective or adjective pronoun. With these the genitive 
singular is commonly used ; as, 

Plus eloqacntice, More (of) eloquence. Tantum Jidei, So much fidelity. 
Id trmporis, That time. Ad hoc cctdtis. Sometimes the plural ; as, Id 
miscridrum. Ter. Armor am quantum. Coes. 

Notk 1. Most neuter adjectives, thus used, denote quantity ; as, tantum, 
qua nium, aliquantum, plus, minus, dimidium, multum, nimium, jdurlmum, 
rdiquum ; to which add medium, summum,ultlmum, aliud, &c. The pro- 
nouns thus used are hoc, id, illud, istud, quod, and quid, with its com- 
pounds. 

Most of these may either agree with their nouns, or take a genitive ; 
but the latter is more common. Tantum, quantum, aliquantum, and plus, 
when they denote quantity, are used with a genitive only, as are also quid 
and its compounds, when they denote a part, sort, &c, and quod in the 
sense of quantum. Thus, Quantum crevit Nilus, tantum spei in annum 
est. Sen. Quid mulieris uxor em hales? What kind of a woman.... Ter. 
Allquid formce. Cic. Quid hoc rei est ? What does this mean? Ter. 
Quad auri. quad argenti, quod ornamentorum fait, id Verves abstulit. 

Note 2. Neuter adjectives and pronouns are scarcely used with a <rvn- 
itive, except in the nominative and accusative. 

Note 3. Sometimes the genitive after these adjectives and pronouns 
is a neuter adjective, of the first and second declension, without a noun ; 
as, Tantum boni, So much good. Si quid habes novi, If you have any 
thin tr new. Cic. Quid rellqui est? Ter. Nihil is also used with such a 
genitive ; as, Nihil sinceri, No sincerity. Cic. This construction some- 
times, though rarely, occurs with an adjective of the third declension j as ? 
Si quidquam non dico civllis sed humdni essct. Liv. 

Note 4. Neuter adjectives in the plural number are sometimes 
followed by a genitive, either singular or plural, with a partitive significa- 
tion; as, Extrema imperii, The frontiers of the empire. Tac. Pontes <t 
via rum angusta, The bridges and the narrow parts of the roads. Id. 
Opdca locorum. Virg. Antlqua fatderum. Liv. Cuncta camporum. Tac. 
Ezerccnt colles,atquc horum aspcrrlma pascunt. Virg. See § 205, Rem. {)■ 

Rem. 4. The adverbs sat, satis, panim, nimis, abundc, larg~U 



SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER ADJKCTIVES. ^> 213. 

ter, affatim, and partim, used partitively, are often followed by a 
genitive; as, 

Sal ratiOnis, Enough of reason. Virg. Satis eloquenliee,parum sapieiUia ; 
Enough ofeloquence, yet but little wisdom. Sail. Nimis insididrum. Cic. 
TerrOris et /nitidis aliunde est. \'ir<r. Auri el argenti largiter. Plant. Co- 
yidrum affatim. Liv. Cum partim illdrum mihi './aiitiliarissiiiu essent. Cic. 

Note 1 . The above words, though generally adverbs, seem, in this u>e, 
rather to be nouns or adjectives. 

JNotf. 2. The genitives gentium, tcrrdrum, loci, and locorum, are used 
after adverbs of place ; as, Usquam gentium, Any where. Plaut. L'bi ter- 
ra/rum sumus? Where in the world are we? Cic. Ablre quo terrarum 
possent. Liv. Ubi sit loci. Plin. Eo loci, In that place. Tac. Edilem 
loci res est. Cic. JS'csclre quo loci esset. Id. But the last three examples 
might perhaps more properly be referred to Rem. 3. 

The adverbs of place thus used "are ubi, ublnam, ubicunqvc, ubi ibi. 
vblvis, usquam, nusquam, quo, quovis, quoquo, allqub, eo, eodem. Loci 
also occurs after ibi and ibidem; gentium alter longi ; as, Ibi loci, In that 
place. Plin. Abes longe gentium. Cic. Vicinia is used in the genitive 
alter hie and hue by the comic writers ; as, H\c proximo: nicinuB. Plaut. 
Hue vicinite. Ter. 

Note 3. Hue, ed, quo, take also a genitive in the sense of degree ; as, 
Ed insolentias fuvorisque proccssit, He advanced to such a degree of inso- 
lence and madness. Plin. Hue enim malorum vent urn est . Curt. HuccXnc 
rerum venimus? Pers. Ed miseriarum. Sail. Quo amentiae progressi 
skis. Liv. 

Note 4. Loci, locorum, and temporis, are used after the adverbs adhur, 
indc, interea, postea, turn, and tunc, in expressions denoting time ; as, 
Adltuc locorum, Till now. Plaut. Inde loci, After that. Lucr. InU.rcu 
loci, In the mean time. Ter. Postea loci, Afterwards. Sail. Turn tem- 
poris. Just. Tunc temporis. Id. Locorum also occurs after id, denoting 
time ; as, Ad id locorum, Up to that time. Sail. 

Note 5. The genitive ejus sometimes occurs after quoad, in such con- 
nections as the following : Quoad ejus fieri possit, As far as may be (Cic.) ; 
where some think quod, in the sense of quantum, should be read, instead 
of quoad. 

Note 6. Prielie and postridie, though reckoned adverbs, are followed 
by a genitive, depending on the noun dies contained in them; as, Pridie 
ejus diet, The day before that day. Cic. Pridie insididrum. Tac. Pos- 
tridie ejus diei. Cces. When they are followed by an accusative, ante or 
jjost is understood. 

Note 7. Adverbs, in the superlative degree, like adjectives, are 
followed by a genitive; as, Optlm£ omnium, Best of all. Cic. Minimi 
gentium. By no means. Ter. 



GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

*§> 213. A noun, limiting the meaning of an adjective, 
is put in the genitive, to denote the relation expressed in 
English by of, or in respect of; as, 

Aridus laudis, Desirous of praise. Plena thnoris, Full of fear. 
App&tens gloria, Desirous of glory. Egcnus aqua:, Destitute of water. 
Memor virtHtis, Mindful of virtue. Doctus fundi, Skilful in speaking. 



$ 213. SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. ISO 



ll-(C, 



So A'rscia mens fati, A mind ignorant of fate. Virg. Impdtens 
Unable to control anger. Liv. Homines expertes veritatis, Men destitute 
of truth. Cic. Lactis abundans, Abounding in milk. Virg. Terraferax 
arhonim, Land productive of trees, Plin. Tenax propositi fir, A man 

tenacious of his purpose. Ilor. JEger animi, Sick in mind. Liv. Integer 
vita scelerisque purus, Upright in life, and free from wickedness. Ilor."' 

From the above examples, it will be seen that the genitive after an 
adjective is sometimes translated by other words besides o/, or in respect 

of, though the relation which it denotes remains the same. 

Remark 1. The adjectives whose signification is most 
frequently limited by a genitive, are, 

(1.) Verbals in ax; as, capax, cdax,fcrax,fugax,perv1cax, tenax, &c. 

(2.) ParticpialS in ns, and a lew in tus ; as, avians, appgtens, cupiens, 
patterns, imputiens, insdlens, sitiens ; — cousultus, ductus, expertus, i/u.r/><r- 
ttts, insuStus, insolitus, solutus. 

(3.) Adjectives denoting 

Desire and Disgust ; as, avdrus,ar1dus, cupidus, studiosus ; fastidiosus. 

Knowledge and Ignorance; as, callldus, consrius, gnarus, peritus, 
prudens; rudis, igndrus, inscius, impr&dens, imperltus, &c. 

Memory and Forgetfolness ; as, memor ; immemor, &c. 

Certainty and Doubt; as, certus ; incertus, ambiguus, dubius, sus- 
pensus, &c. 

Care and Negligence; as, anxius, solicltus, procldus ; improvldus, 
secants, &c. 

Fear and Confidence; as, pavldus, timldus ; trcptdus, impavldus, 
full ns, interritus, &c. 

Guilt and Innocence; as, noxius, reus, suspectiis, com]) er tus, manifes- 
tos ; innoxius, innocens, insons, &c. 

Plenty and Want; as, plenus, dives, satur, largus ; inops, egenus, 
. pauper, parcus, vacuus, &c. 

Many other adjectives are in like manner limited by a genitive, espe- 
cially by anhni, ingenii, mentis, irce, militia, belli, laboris, rcrum, arui, 
viorum, and fid ci. 

Rem. 2. The limiting genitive, by a Greek construction, sometimes 
denotes a cause or source, especially in the poets ; as, Lassus laboris, 
Weary of labor. Hor. Fes&us via. Stat. Fessus maris. Hor. 

Rem. 3. Participles in ns, when used as such, take after them the same 
case as the verbs from which they are derived ; as, 6'e avians, Loving 
himself. Cic. Mare terrain appetens. Id. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the genitive, denoting of, or in respect 
of, a different construction is used after many adjectives; as, 

(1.) An infinitive or clause; as, Certus ire, Determined to go. Ovid. 
Cantare periti. Virg. Felicior unguere tela. Id. Anxius quid facto opus 
sit. Sail. 

(2.) An accusative with a preposition ; as, Ad rem avidior. Ter. 
.Iridus in direptiones. Liv. Animus capax ad prsecepta. Ovid. Ad 
casum fortunami7»c felix. Cic. Ad fraudem callldus. id. Diligens ad 
custodiendum. Id. Negligentior in patrem. Just. Vir ad discipllnam 
peritus. Cic. Ad bell a rudis. Liv. Potens in res bellicas. Id. Aldcer 
ad maleficia. Cic. Inter helium ct pacem nihil medium est. Id. 

(?,.) An accusative without a preposition, chiefly in the poets; as, 
Nudus membra, Pare as to hrs limbs. Virg. Os, humeros^wc dco similis. 
Id. Cetera fulvus. Hot. See § 234, II. 



190 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE AFTER VERI5S. <§>214. 

(1.) An ablative with a preposition; as, Arldus in pecuniis, Eager in 
regard to money. Cic. Anxius de fama. Quin< t. Rudis in jure clvlli. 
Perltus de agricultural. Varr. Prudens in jure civili. Cic i2eiu 
de vi. Id. Purus ab cultu humdno. Liv. Certior foetus de re. Cic. 
Solicltus de re. Id. Super scelere suspectus. Sail. Inops ab amicis. Cic. 
Pauper in are. Iior. Modlcus in cultu. Plin. Ab aquis sterilis. Apul. 
Copiosus a frumento. Cic. Ab equitatu t /t/-/«//s. Id. 

(.">.) An ablative without a preposition; as, Arte r«(/i's, Rude in art. 
Ovid. Regal crimine insons. Liv. Compos mente. Virg. Prudens 
consilio. Just. JEger pedlbus. Sail. Prccstuus ingenio. Cic. Modlcus 
severitate. Tac. JVi7a7 insidiis vacuum. Cic. Jlrnor et melle cf felle c>£ 
fecund isslmus. Plaut. Medius Polluce e£ C as tore. Ovid. 

In many instances, the signification of the accusative and ablative after 
adjectives differs, in a greater or less degree, from that of the genitive 

Rem. 5. As many of the adjectives, which are followed by a genitive, 
admit of other constructions, the most common use of each, with particu- 
lar nouns, can, in general, be determined only by recourse to the diction- 
ary, or to the classics. Some have, 

(1.) The genitive only; as, benignus, exsors, impos, impotens, irrltus, 
liberdlis, vulnificus, prazlargus, and many others. 

(2.) The genitive more frequently ; as, compos, consors, cgenus, exhteres, 
expers,fertilis, indlgus, parens, pauper, proaXgus, sterllis, prosper, insutid- 
tus, insatiabllis. 

(3.) The genitive or ablative indifferently; as, copiosus, dives, fccuw'.us, 
ferax, immunis, indnis, inops, largus, modlcus, immodlcus, nirnius, opulen- 
tus, plcnus, potens, purus, refertus, satur, vacuus, ubcr. 

(4.) The ablative more frequently; as, abundans, alienus, cassus, 
extorris,firinus,faitus, frequens, gravis, gravidas, jejunus, infirmus, liber, 
locuplcs, l&tus, martus, nudus, onustus, or bus, pollens, satidtus. tenuis t 
truncus, viduus. 

(5.) The ablative only; as, bedtus, mutllus, tumldus, turgldus. 

For the construction of the ablative after the preceding adjectives 
see § 250. 

Rem. 6. Some adjectives which are usually limited by a dative, some- 
times take a genitive instead of the dative ; as, similis, dissimllis, &e. 
See § 222, Rem. 2; or ablative § 250. 



GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 

<§> 214. Sum, and verbs of valuing, are followed by a 
genitive, denoting degree of estimation ; as, 

A me argeiitum,qna.nticst, sumlto ; Take of me so much money as (he) 
is worth. Ter. Magni (estimdbat pecuniam, He valued money greatly. 
Cic. Agcr nunc pluris est, quam tuncfuit. Id. 

Remark 1. This genitive may be, 

(1.) A -neuter adjective of quantity; as, land, quanli, pluris, mi nor is, 
magni, permagni, plwrlmi, maxlmi, minimi, parvi, tantldem, quanticunquc, 
qua nt iris, quantilluet, but not multi and majoris. 

(2.) The nouns assis,focci, nauci, nihlli, j)ili, teruncii, and also pensi 
and liujus. 



^ "215. SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. I '. 1 1 

Rem. 2. The verbs of valuing are cssflmo, exisflmo, duco, faeio, habco, 
kendo, puto, depOto, tu.ro, to which may be added refert and interest. 
Thus, Ut quanti guisque se ipse facial, tantifiat ul> amlcis; That as much 
as each one values himself, so much lie should he valued by his friends. 
Cic. Sed quia parvi id ducSret . Id. HonOres si magni non puUmus. Id. 
Non nss'is Juris ? Catull. jVn/itc. quod dixi, flocci extsCtmat. Plaut. /////(/ 
men magni interest, That greatly concerns me. Cic. Parvi refeit jus 
diet. Id. 

Note 1. JEqui and boni are put in the genitive after facio and consulo ; 
as. JVos a;qui boi&que fuel m us. Liv. Hum ronsuluit, lie took it in good 
part. Plin. 

Note 2. After cestimo, the ablatives magno, permagno, parvo, 
are sometimes used ; as, Data magno eestlmas, accepta parvo. Sen. So, 
Levi momento Bestimare. Cffis. So other ablatives, when definite price is 

denoted. Pro vilulo, also, occurs alter duco, habco, and puto. l^o nihil 
with cestimo and moror. 

Note 3. With refert and interest, instead of the genitive, an adverb or 
neuter accusative is often used; as, Multum refert. Mart. Plurunuui 
inter ir it. Juv. Tua nihil re'ferebat. Ter. Quia autem illius interest ? Cic. 

Note 4. The neuter adjectives above enumerated, and hujus, may be 
referred to a noun understood, as pretii, oris, pond&ris, momenti; and 
may be considered as limiting a preceding noun, also understood, and 
denoting some person or thing indefinite ; as, JEstlmo tc magni, i.e. hom~ 
inem magni pretii. Seiu ejus or dines auctoritdtem semper apud te magni 
fu>sse, i. e. rem magni momenti. The words assis, <Scc, may also be con- 
sidered as depending on an omitted noun, as pretio, rem, &c. 

For tanti, quanti, pluris, viinoris, denoting price, see § 252. 

§215. (1.) Miscreor, misercsco. and the impersonals 
•miscret, pamltet, pitdct, tcedet, and piget, are followed by a 
genitive of the object in respect to which the feeling is 
exercised ; as, 

Miseremlni sociorum, Pity the allies. Cic. Misrreselte regis, Pity the 
king. Virg. Tui me miscret, mei piget, I pity you, and am sorry for my- 
self. Ace. Eos ineptiarum pwnttet. Cic. Fratris me pudet pigetque. Ter. 
Me civitdtis morum piget tcedetque. Sail. So the passive; Nunquam sus- 
cepti negotii cum perteesum est. Nep. Lenitudinis eorum pertasa. Tac. 
Miserltum est me tuaruni fortunarum. Ter. Cave tc fratrum miscredtur. 
Cic. 

Miscrescit is sometimes used in the same manner ; as, Nunc tc misercscat 
mei. Ter. Miserco, in the active voice, also occurs with a genitive ; as, 
Ipse sui miscret. Lucr. Pertcesus ignaviam suam occurs in Suetonius. 

Remark. The genitive after the above impersonals seems to depend 
on an indefinite subject which is omitted. See §209, Rem. 3, (4.) In- 
stead of the genitive, an infinitive or clause is sometimes used as a subject; 
as, Non me hoc jam dicere pudebit. Cic. Non paznltet me quantum pro- 
fecerim. Id. These verbs have also sometimes a nominative, especially 
a neuter pronoun ; as, Me quidem hac conditio non pcrnitct. Plaut. Non 
te hrec pudent ? Ter. 

Mist ret occurs with an accusative, instead of a genitive ; as, Menedimi 
vicem miseret me. Ter. 

These verbs also take an accusative of the person exercising the feeling 
which they express. See § 229. Rem. 6 



19'2 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. $ 217. 

(i2.) SatdgO is followed by a genitive denoting in what re- 
sped ; as, 

Is sutugit rerum sudrum, He is busily occupied with his own aifairs. 
Ter. This compound is often written separately. Aglto, with sat, in like 
manner, is followed by a genitive ; as, A unc ag'Uas sat tute tudrum rerum. 
Tlaut. 

$ 216. Recordor, mcniini, reminiscor, and obliviscor, 
are followed by a genitive or accusative of the object 
remembered or forgotten ; as, 

Hujus meriti recordor,! remember his merit. Cic. Omncs gradus atdtis 
recordor taxz, I call to mmd all the periods of your life. Id. Memlni vivO- 
rum, I am mindful of the living. Id. Numeros memlni, I remember the 
measure. Virg. Cinnam memlni, I remember Cinna. Cic. Reminisci 
rcteris famae. Nep. Reminisci amicos. Ovid. Injuriarum cbliviscltur. 
Nep. Obliviscere Graios. Virg. 

Remark 1. These verbs seem sometimes to be considered as active, 
and sometimes as neuter. As active, they take an accusative regularly ; 
as neuter, they take a genitive, denoting that in respect to which mem- 
ory, &C are exercised. An infinitive or other clause sometimes follows 
these verbs; as, Obhti quid deceat. Hor. Memlni te sciibere. Cic. Quob 
sum passu ra recordor. Ovid. 

Kim. 2. Recordor and memlni, to remember, are sometimes followed 
by an ablative with de ; as, Pctlmus vt de snis libcris ....rccordcutur. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Memlni, signifying to make mention of, lias a genitive, or an 
ablative with de; as, Keque hujus rei memlnit poeta. Quint. Mcmivisti 
de exsullbus. Cic. For the genitive with vcait in mentem, see §2!1, 
Rem. 8, (5.) 

§217. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, 

and acquitting, are followed by a genitive denoting the 
crime ; as, 

Arguit me furti, He accuses me of theft. Alterum accusal probri, lie 
accuses another of villany. Meipsum inertias condemno. Cic. 

Remark 1. To this rule belong the verbs of 

Accusing ; acciiso, ago, arcesso, arguo, cito, defero, increpo, incuso, 
insimulo, post-id o, and more rarely alllgo, unqulro, astringo, capto, increp- 
Ito, urgeo, interrogo. 

Convicting : convince, coargao, prehendo. 

Condemning; damno, condemno, infdmo, and more rarely judlco, nolo, 
plec/or. 

Acquitting ; absoho, libcro, jntrgo, and rarely solvo. 

Rem. 2. instead of the genitive, an ablative with de is often used ; as, 
Accusdre de negligentia. Cic. De vi condemndti sunt Id. De repetun- 
(\]< est postuldtus. Id. Sometimes with in; as, In quo tc accuso (Cic.) ; 
and after libSro, with a or ab ; as, A scelere libcrdti sumus. Cic. 

With some of the above verbs, an ablative without a preposition is often 
used; as, Liberdre culpa. Cic. Crimen quo argui posset. Nep. Procon- 
■postulavirat repetundis. Tac. This happens especially with general 
words denoting crime ; as, scelus, maleficium,peccatum, Sic. ; as, Me pec- 
cato solvo. Liv. The ablatives crimlne and nomine, without a preposition, 
are often inserted before the genitive ; as, Arcessire allquem crimlne on- 
buds. Liv. Nomine sceleris conjurationisque damndti. Cic. Sometimes 
.i clause takes the place of the genitive ; as, Earn accusdbant quod societa- 

•i fecissel Nep. So the inlin. with the ace. Ovid. Met. 13, 21)7. 



§218, 219. SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 193 

Rem. 3. The punishment is expressed either by the genitive, the 
■blative, or the accusative with ad or in ; as, Damndtus umgi laboris 
(Hor.); Quadrupli eondemnari (Cic); Dam mi re peeunid (Just.), ad 
pmuim (Traj. in rlin.), in metaUum (Plin.) ; — sometimes, though rarely, 
py the dative ; as, Damndtus morti. Lucr. In like manner, caput is used 
in the genitive or ablative ; as, Dares capitis damndtos, Nep. JVsc capita 
immndrer. Cic. So with some other verbs besides those ox accusing, &c. 
qui in ego capitis perdam. Plaut. Me capitis periclitatum memlni. Apul. 
With plccto and plccLor, caput is used in the ablative only. 

Rem. 4. Jiccfiso,incuso, insimulo, instead of the genitive, sometimes 
take the accusative, especially of a neuter pronoun ; as, 8i id vie nan 
accusas. Plant. Quaa me incasareras. Ter. Sic me insimularc falsum 
faeinus. Plaut. See § 231, Rem. 5. 

Rem. 5. The following verbs of accusing, &c, are not followed by a 
genitive of the crime, but, as active verbs, by an accusative : — calumniur, 
carpo, corripio, crimitwr, culpo, excuso, multo, punio, reprehendo, sugillo, 
tu.ro, traduce, vitupcro ; as, Culpdre infecunaitdtem agrarian. Colum. 
Exeusdre crrorem et adolescenliam. Liv. 

This construction also occurs with some of the verbs before enumerated ; 
as, Ejus avar ilium perfidiamque accusdrat. Nep. Culpa m arguo. Liv. 
With multo, the punishment is put in the ablative only, without a prepo- 
sition ; as, Exsiliis, murtc multantur. Cic. 

<§>21S. Verbs of admonishing are followed by a gen- 
itive denoting that in respect to which the admonition is 
given ; as, 

Milites temporis monet, He admonishes the soldiers of the occasion. 
Tac. .idmonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suai. Sail. 

Remark 1. The verbs of admonishing are maneo, admoneo, commoneo, 
.commonefacio. Instead of the genitive, they sometimes have an ablative 
with de ; as, De sede Tclluris vie admones (Cic); — sometimes a neuter 
accusative of an adjective pronoun or adjective ; as, Eos hoc moneo (Cic.) ; 
Illud me admoneo (Id.) ; Multa admonemur (Id.) ; — and rarely a noun ; 
as, Earn rem nos locus admonuit. Sail. 

Rem. 2. These verbs, instead of the genitive, are often followed by an 
infinitive or clause ; as, Surornumct succurrere Lauso Turnum, His sister 
admonishes Turn us to succor Lausus. Virg. Monet, ut suspicions vitet. 
Ca?s. Munct rationem frumenti esse habendam. Hirt. Immortalia ne 
speres monet annus. Hor. See §§ 271 — 273. 

<§> 219. Refert and interest are followed by a genitive of 
the person or thing whose concern or interest they denote ; as, 

Humanitdtis refert, It concerns human nature. Plin. Interest omnium 
recti fa cere, It concerns all to do right. Cic. 

Remark. 1. Instead of the genitive of the substantive pro- 
nouns, the adjective pronouns mea, tua, sua, nostra, and vestra s 
are used ; as, 

Mea nihil refert, It does not concern me. Ter. Tua et mea marimd 
interest, tc calere. Cic. Magis reipubllcae interest quam mea. Id. 

Refert rarely occurs with the genitive, but often with the adjective 
pronouns. 

Rsm 2 In regard to the case of these adjective pronouns, gramma- 

17 



194 SYNTAX. GENITIVE OF PLACE. § 220, 221. 

rians differ. Some suppose that they are in the accusative plural neuter, 
agreeing with an indefinite noun understood ; as, Interest mea, i. e. est 
inter mea ; It is among my concerns. Rcfert tua, i. e. refert se ad tua ; It 
refers itself to your concerns. Others think that they are in the ablative 
singular feminine, agreeing with re, causa, &c, understood, or the dative. 

Rem. 3. Instead of a genitive, an accusative with ad is sometimes 
used ; as, Ad honorem visum interest quam primiim urbem me venire 
(Cic.) ; Quid id ad me aut ad mcam rem refert (Flaut.) ; — sometimes, though 
rarely, an accusative without a preposition; as, Quid te igttur retidit? 
(Plaut.) ; — or a dative ; as, Die quid referat intra natural fines viventi. Hor. 

Rem. 4. These verbs often have a nominative, especially a neuter pro- 
noun; as, Id mea miinmh rcfert. Ter. Hoc vehementer interest reipublica. 
Cic. jYon quo mea inter essct loci natura. Id. 

For the genitives ta,nti, quanti, &c, after refert and interest, see § 214. 
^ 220. Many verbs which are usually otherwise construed, 
are sometimes followed by a genitive. This rule includes 

1. Certain verbs denoting an affection of the mind; ango, discruciar, 
excrucio, fallo, pendeo, which are followed by aiiinii ; decipior, desipio, 
jailor, fastidio, invideo, miror, vtrcor ; as, Jlhsurdb facis qui angas te 
animi. Plaut. Me animi fall it. Lucr. Decipitur laborum. Hor. ^Desip- 
ie.ba.7n mentis. Plaut. Justitiae ne prius mirer belllne laborum. Virg. 

2. The following, in imitation of the Greek idiom; abstineo (Hor.), 
deslno (Id.), desisto (Virg.), laudo (Sil.), levo (Plaut.), particlpo (Id.), pro- 
hibeo (Sil.), purgo (Hor.) apiscor, (Tac.) Regndvit populorum Id. Od. 
3, 30, 12. for which some manuscripts read regnator. 

3. Some verbs denoting to fill, to abound, to want, which are commonly 
followed by an ablative. Such are abundo, careo, compleo, expleo, impleo, 
egco, indigeo, saturo, scateo ; as, Jldolesccntem sua: temeritatis implet, He 
fills the youth with his own rashness. Liv. Animum explesse flammas. 
Virg. Egeo consilii. Cic. JVon tarn artis indigent quam laboris. Id. 
See § § 249 and 250, (2.) 

4. Potior, which also is usually followed by an ablative ; as, Urbis 
potiri, To gain possession of the city. Sail. Poixri regni (Cic), hostium 
(Sail.), rerum (Cic.) Potio (active) occurs in Plautus; as, Eum nunc 
■potivit servitutis, He has made him partaker of slavery. In the same 
writer, putltus est hostium. signifies, "he fell into the hands of the enemy." 
So. Rerum adeptus est. Tac. 

GENITIVE OF PLACE. 

§ 221. I. The name of a town in which any thing is 
said to be, or to be done, if of the first or second declen- 
sion and singular number, is put in the genitive ; as, 

Habitat Mileti, He lives at Miletus. Ter. Quid Roma faciam? What 
can I do at R.ome ? Juv. 

Remark I. Names of islands and countries are sometimes put in the 
genitive, like names of towns , as, Ilhacce vivere, To live in Ithaca. Cic. 
Corcyrai faimus. Id. Pompeivm Cypri visum esse. Caes. Cretan jussit 
considere Apollo. Virg. JYon Libya. Id. Romce Kumidiaque. Sail. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the genitive, the ablative of names of towns of the 
first and second declension and singular number, is sometimes, though 



§ 222. SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 195 

rarely, used ; as, Rex Tyro decedit, The king dies at Tyre. Just. Et 
Corintho et Athenis et Lacedamone nuncidta est victoria. Id. Pons quern 
Me Abydo fecerat. Id. Hujus exemplar Roma, nullum habemus. Vitruv. 
J\ r on ante Tyro. Virg. 

Rem. 3. The genitives domi, militia), belli, and humi, are 
construed like names of towns ; as, 

Tenuit se domi, He staid at home. Cic. Vir domi clarus. Liv. Una 
semper militiee et domi fuimus, We were always together both at home 
and abroad. Ter. Belli spectdta domlque virtus. Hot. Militia and belli are 
thus used, especially when opposed to domi. Spargit humi jussos dentes. Ov. 

(1.) Domi is thus used with the possessives mea, tua, sua, nostra, 
vcstra, and aliena ; as, Domi nostra? vixit, He lived at my house. Cic. 
Jipud eum sicfui tanquam meze domi. Id. Sacrificium, quod alienee domi 
fieret invisere. Id. But with other adjectives, an ablative, with or without 
a preposition, is used ; as, In vidud domo. Ovid. Paternd domo. Id. 
Sometimes also with the possessives ; as, Med in domo. Hot. In domo 
sua. Nep. So, instead of humi, humo is sometimes used, with or without 
a preposition ; as, In humo arenosd. Ovid. Seder e humo nudd. Id. 

(2.) When a genitive denoting the possessor follows, either domi or in 
domo is used ; as, Deprehensus domi Casdris. Cic. In domo Casdris. 
Id. In domo ejus. Nep. 

(3.) The ablative domo for domi also occurs ; as, Ego id nunc experior 
domo. Plaut. Bello for belli is found in Livy, Lib. 9. 2b' — Domi belldquc. 

(4.) Terra is sometimes used like humi ; as, Sacra terra? celavlmus. Liv. 
Vicinia occurs in Plautus — Proxima vicinia? habitat. 

(5.) The genitive of names of towns, domi, militia, &c, are supposed 
by some to depend on a noun understood ; as, urbe, oppido, adlbus, solo, 
loco, tempore, &c. 



GENITIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

II. Certain adverbs are followed by the genitive. See § 212, Rjem. 4. 

III. The genitive plural sometimes depends on the preposition tenus ; 
as, Cumdrum tenus, As far as Cumoe (Coal.) ; Crurum tenus (Virg.) ; Lati- 
rum tenus (Id.) ; — sometimes, also, though rarely, the genitive singular; 
as, Corcyra tenus. Liv. 



DATIVE. 
DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

<§> 222, A noun limiting the meaning of an adjective, 
is put in the dative, to denote the object or end to which 
the quality is directed ; as, 

Utilis agris, Useful to the fields. Juv. Jucundus amlcif, Agreeable to 
his friends. Mart. Inirnlcus quieti, Unfriendly to rest. Id. Charta inutllis 
scribcndo, Paper not useful for writing. Plin. 

The dative is commonly translated by the prepositions to or for ; but 
sometimes by other prepositions, or without a preposition. 



19G SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. § 222. 

Remark 1. Adjectives signifying advantageous, pleasant, 
friendly, fit, like, inclined, ready, easy, clear, equal, and their 
opposites, also those signifying near, many compounded with 
con, and verbals in bills, are followed by the dative ; as, 

Felix tuis, Propitious to your friends. Virg. Oratio ingrata Gallis, A 
speech displeasing to the Gauls. Cces. Amicus ttjrunnidi, Friendly to 
tyranny. Nep. Labori inkabilis, Unsuited to labor. Colum. Patri slmilis, 
Like his father. Cic. Aptum tempori. Id. J\talo pronus. Sen. Prorrvp- 
tus seditioni. Tac. Cuivis facile est. Ter. Mild certum est. Cic. Par 
fratri tuo. Id. Falsa veris finitlma sunt. Id Oculi concolores corpori. 
Colum. Multis bonis flcbilis. Hor. 

Many adjectives of other significations are also followed by a dative of 
the end or object. 

After verbals in bilis, the dative is usually rendered by the preposition 
by ; as, Tibi credibilis sermo, A speech credible to you, i. e. worthy to be 
believed by you. Ovid. 

The expression dicto audiens, signifying obedient, is followed by the 
dative; as, Syracusdni nobis dicto audientes sunt. Cic. Audiens dicto fait 
jussis magistratuum. Nep. In this phrase, dicto is a dati\ 3 limiting audiens, 
and the words dicto audiens seem to form a compound equivalent to obe- 
diens, and, like that, followed by a dative ; thus, Nee plebs nobis dicto 
audiens atque obediens sit. Liv. 

Rem. 2. The adjectives cequdlis, affinis, alienus, communis, jidus, in- 
suetus, par, dispar, proprius, propinquus, sacer,similis, consimilis, dissim- 
ilis, socius, vicinus, supcrstcs, supplex, and some others, instead of a dative 
of the object, are sometimes followed by a genitive ; as, Similis tui, Like 
you. Plaut. Par hujus, Equal to him. Lucan. Ctt.jusquc proprium. Cic. 
But most of these, when thus used, seem rather to be taken substantively; 
as, JEqudlis ejus, His equal. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Some adjectives with the dative are followed by another case 
denoting a different relation ; as, Mens sibi conscia recti, A mind conscious 
to itself of rectitude. Virg. See §213. 

Rem. 4. Many adjectives, instead of the dative of the end 
or object, are often followed by an accusative with a preposition. 

(1.) Adjectives signifying advantageous, fit, and the opposite, take an 
accusative of the purpose or end with ad. but only a dative of the person ; 
as, Ad nul '.lam rem utilis. Cic. Locus aptus ad insidias. Id. 

(2.) Adjectives denoting motion or tendency, take an accusative with 
ad more frequently than a dative ; as, Piger ad pGenas, ad prsemia velox 
(Ovid.) ; Ad allquem morbum proclivior (Cic.) ; Ad omne facln us para/us 
(Id.) ; Promts ad fidem (Liv.) ; — sometimes with in ; as, Celer in pug- 
nam. Sil. 

(3.) Many adjectives, signifying an affection of the mind, sometimes 
have an accusative of the object with in, erga, or adversiis ; as, Fide lis in 
filios. Just. Mater acerba in suos partus. Ovid. Grains erga me. Cic. 
Gratum ad versus te. Id. So DissimUis in dominum. Tac. 

(4.) Adjectives signifying like, equal, common, &c, when plural, are 
often followed by the accusative with inter; as, Inter se similes. Cic. 
Inter eos communis. Id. Inter se diver si. Id. 

Rem. 5. Propior and proximus, instead of the dative, have sometimes 
an accusative without a preposition ; as, Quod vitium propius virtutem 



§223. SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 197 

erat. Sail. P. Crassus proximus more OcQinum hiemdl-at. Cms. Agcr, qui 
proximus finem Megalopolitdrum est. Liv. 

Rem. 6. Some adjectives, instead of the dative, have at times an abla- 
tive with a preposition. Thus, par, communis, consentaneus, discors, with 
cum; as, Quern parem cum liberis fscisti. Sail. Consentaneum cum Us 
Uteris. Cic. Civltas secum discors. Liv. So alienus and diversus with 
a or ah; as, Alienus a me (Ter.); A ratione diversus (Cic.) ; or without a 
preposition ; as, Aiienum nostrcl amicitia. Id. 

Rem. 7. Idem is sometimes followed by the dative, chiefly in the poets; 
as, Jupiter omnibus idem. Virg. Intntum qui servat idem fucit occidenti. 
Hor. In the first example, omnibus is a dative of the object ; in the second, 
the dative follows idem, in imitation of the Greek construction with 
avroq, and is equivalent to quod fucit is, qui occldit. Idem is generally 
followed not by a case, but by qui, ac, atque, ut, or quoin; sometimes by 
the preposition cum; as, Eodern mecum patre. Tac. Similis and par are 
sometimes, like idem, followed by ac and atque. 

Note. Nouns are sometimes followed by a dative of the object; as, 
Virtutibus hostis. Cic. Caput Italim omni. Liv. See § 211, Rem. 5. Vir 
ex sententia ambobus. Sail. Tibi in promptu est, It is easy for you. 

DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

§223. Anoun limiting the meaning of a verb, is put 
in the dative, to denote the object or end, to or for which 
any thing is, or is done ; as, 

Mea damns tibi patet, My house is open to you. Cic. Pars optdre locum 
tecto, A part choose a site for a building. Virg. Tibi seris, tibi metis ; You 
sow for yourself, you reap for yourself. Flaut. Licet nemTni contra patriam 
duccre exercitum, It is lawful to no one to lead an army against his country. 
Cic. Hoc tibi promitto. I promise this to you. Id. Hairet lateri letdlis 
arundo. Virg. Surdo fab ul 'am narras. Hor. Mihi responsum dedit. Virg. 
Sir cos nun vobis fertis arutra bones. Id Omnibus bonis expedit salvam 
esse rempublicam. Cic. Aptat habendo enscm. Virg. 

The dative is thus used after active and neuter verbs, both personal and 
impersonal, and in both voices. 

Remark 1. The dative after many verbs is rendered not by to or for, 
but by other prepositions, or without a preposition. Many neuter verbs are 
translated into English by an active verb, and the dative after them is 
usually rendered like the object of an active verb. 

Most verbs after which the signs to and for are not used with the dative, 
are enumerated in this and the following sections. 

Rem. 2. Many verhs signifying to favor, please, trust, and 
their contraries, also to assist, command, obey, serve, resist, 
threaten, and be angry, govern the dative; as, 

Ilia tibi fuvet, She favors you. Ovid. Mihi plar.ebat Pom nonius, mini ind 
displkebat. Cic. Qui sibi Jidit. Hor. Non licet sui commodi causa no- 
cere alteri. Cic. J\'on invide.tur illi astati sed etiam favitnr . Id. Dcs-perut 
saluti suee. Id. JVeque mihi vestra decreta, auxiliuntur. Sail. ImpertiL nut 
sercit collecta pecunia cuique. Hor. Obcdlre ct parere voluntati. Cic. 
Quoniam factioni inimirdrum resistere nequiverit. Sail. Mihi miuabdiur. 
Cic. Irasci inimicis. Ci.es. 
17* 



198 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 224. 

So Adidor, blandior, commodo, faveo, gratificor, grator, gratulor and 
its verbal gratulabundus, ignosco, indulgeo, palpor, parco, plaudo, studeo, 
subparasitor ; amnio?', incommodo, invideo, noceo. — Placco, libet or lubet ; 
displiceo. — Credo, Jido, confido ; despe.ro, diffldo. — Adminicular, auxilior, 
medeor, medlcor, opitulor, patroclnor. — Impero, mando, moderor (to re- 
strain), prcecipio, tempero. — Ausculto, morigeror, obedio,obsecundo.bbsequor, 
obtempero, pareo. — Ancillor , famiilor , ministro, servio, inservio. — Refrdgor, 
rductor, realtor, repugno, resisto, and, chiefly in the poets, bello, certo, luctor, 
pugno. — Minor, comminor, intermlnor. — Irascor, succenseo, to which may 
be added convicior, degenero, excello, nubo (to marry), praestolor, praxaricor, 
recipio (to promise), renuncio, respondeo, suadeo, pcrsuadeo, dissuadeo, sup- 
jilico, and sometimes lateo and decet. 

(1.) Many of the above verbs, instead of the dative, are sometimes fol- 
lowed by an accusative ; as, adulor, ausculto, blandior, degenero, despe.ro, 
indulgeo, lateo, medeor, medlcor, moderor, prcestolor, provideo, &c. ; as, 
Aduldri aliquem. Cic. Tac. Hanc cave degeneres. Ovid. Indulgeo me. 
Ter. Hujus adventum prcestolans. Cobs. Providere rem frumenta- 
riam. Id. 

Others, as active verbs, have, with the dative, an accusative, expressed 
or understood ; as, impero, mando, ministro, minor, comminor, intermlnor, 
pracipio, recipio, renuncio, &c. ; as, Equltes imperat civitatlbus. Caes. 
Jninistrdre victum alicui. Varr. Deflagrationem urbi et Italia toti mina- 
bdt'ur. Cic. 

(2.) Many verbs which, from their significations, might be included in 
the above classes, are, as active verbs, only followed by an accusative ; as, 
dctecto.juvo, Imdo, offendo, &c. Jubco is followed by the accusative with 
an infinitive, and sometimes, though rarely, by the accusative alone, or the 
dative with an infinitive; as, Jubeo te bene sperare. Cic. Lex jubet ea 
qua facienda sunt. Id. Ubi Britanmco jussit exsurgere. Tac. Fido and 
confido are often followed by the ablative, with or without a preposition ; 
as, Fidere cursu. Ovid. 

§ 224. Many verbs compounded with these eleven prepo- 
sitions, ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,post, prcB, pro, sub, and super, 
are followed by the dative ; as, 

Annuecceptis, Favor our undertakings. Virg. Romdnis equittbus literaajfe- 
runtur, Letters are brought to the Pioman knights. Cic. Antecellerc omnibus, 
To excel all. Id. Antetidit iros religionem. Nep. Audetque viris concur it v.re 
virgo. Virg. Exercltum exercitui, duces duclbus compardre. Lav. Im- 
minei his aBr. Ovid. Fecori signum impressit. Virg. JYox pradio inter- 
venit. Liv. Interdixit histrionibus scenam. Suet. Meis commodis qfflcis 
et obstas. Cic. Cum se hostium telis objccissent. Id. Posihabui mea stria 
ludo. Virg. Certamlni prasedit. Suet. Hibernis Labienum prapusuit. 
Cces. Vobis profuit ingeniun. Ovid. Miseris succurrere disco. Virg. 
lis subsidia submittebat. Cses. Timldis supervenit JEgle. Virg. So 

1. Accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adequlto, adhareo, adjaceo, adno, 
adnata, adsto, adstipulor, adsum, adversor, affulgeo, alldbor, annuo, ap- 
pareo, applaudo, appropinquo, arridro, asplro, assentior, assideo, assisto, 
assvcsco, assurgo ; — addo, affero, afflgo, adjicio, adjungo, adhibeo, admo- 
veo, adtcrto, alllgo, appdno, appllco, advolvo, aspcrgo. 

2. Antecedo, antecello, antceo, antesto, antevenio, antecerto , — antefero^ 
antehabeo, antepdno. 

3. Cohareo, colludo, conclno, congruo, conscntio, consono, convlvo, and, 
chiefly in tbe poets, codo, concumbo, concurro, contendo ; — compdro, com- 
pdno, confero, conjungo 



§ 225. SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 199 

4. lncid.o, incumbo, indormio, irihio, ingemisco, inlutreo, innascor, inni- 
tor, insideo, insidior, insto, insisto, insiido, insuLlo, invado, invigilo, illa- 
crymu, illiidu, immineo, ivunorior, immoror, iinpcndeo, insuvi; — imuiiscco, 
impono, imprlmo, infero, ingcro, injicio, incliido, lustra, inspergo, i.nuro. 

5. Intercfdo , iutcrcldo, i/t.lcrj<ia:o, inicrmlco, intersum, inter vcnio ; — in- 
terdict*, intcrpono. 

6. Obambido, oberro, obcqulto, obluctor, obmurmiiro i obre'po,obsto, obsisto, 
obstrepo, obsuin, oblrccto, obveuio, obversor, occumbd, occurro, occurso, offi- 
cio ; — obduco, objicio, offtro, offundo, oppono. 

7. Postfero, posthabeo, postpono, postpMo, postscribo. 

8. Prcecedo, praicurro, prcceo, prtssideo, praduceo, pramiteo, prasum, prae- 
valeo, proivertor ; — prcefero, prccjirio, prtcpono. 

9. Procumbo, projicio, propugno, prosum, prospicio, provideo. 

10. Succedo, succumbo, succurro, sujjicio, suffrdgor, subcresco, subolco, 
subjacco, subrepo, subsum, subvenio ; — subdo, subjugo, subtnitto, suppono, 
substerno. 

11. Supercurro, super sto, super sum, supervenio, supervlvo. 

Remark 1. Some verbs, compounded with ab, de, ex, circum, and con- 
tra, are occasionally followed by the dative; as, absurn, deszim, deldbor, 
excido, circumdo, circumfundo, circumjaceo, circumjicio, contrudico, con- 
tract) ; as, Serta caplti delapsa, The garlands having- fallen from his head. 
Virg. J\"unqui nummi excidtrunt tibi ? Plaut. Tigris urbi circum fundltur. 
Plin. 

Rem. 2. Some verbs of repelling and taking away (most of which are 
compounds of ab, de, or ex), are sometimes followed by the dative, though 
more commonly by the ablative ; as, alrigo, abrogo, abscindo, at/fero, adi- 
mo, arceo, defendo, demo, derogo, detrdho, eripio, eruo, excutio, eximo, ex- 
torqueo, extrdho, exuo, surripio. Thus, Kec milii te eripicnt, Nor shall they 
take you from me. Ovid. Solstitium pecuri defcndlte. Virg. Htinc arcc- 
bis pecori. Id. So rarely abrurnpo, aHtno, furor, and rapio. 

Rem. 3. Some verbs of differing (compounds of di or dis) likewise 
occur with the dative, instead of the ablative with a preposition ; as, 
diffe.ro, discrepo, discordo, dissentio, dlssidco, disto ; as, Quantum simplex 
hilarisque nepoti discrepet, ct quantum discordet parcus avaro. Hor. So 
likewise misceo ; as, Mi.sta modestise gravitas. Cic. 

Rem. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, instead of the 
dative, either constantly or occasionally take the case of the preposition, 
wdiich is sometimes repeated. Sometimes, also, one of similar significa- 
tion is used ; as, Ad primani. vocem timidas advertitis aures. Ovid. 
JYemo eum antecessit. Nep. Infcrunt omnia in ignem Cses. Silcx in- 
cumbebat ad amnem. Virg. Conferte have pacem cum Mo bello. Cic. 

Rem. 5. Some neuter verbs compounded with prepositions, either take 
the dative, or, acquiring an active signification, are followed by the accu- 
sative ; as, Helvetic rdiquos Gallos virtute prcexedunt, The Heivetii surpass 
the other Gauls in valor. Cass. Uterque Isocratem <ztdte prmcurrit. Cic. 
So prceeo, prcesto, pretverto, pratcello. See § 233. 

^ 225. I. Verbs compounded with satis, bc?ie, and male, 
are followed by the dative ; as, 

Et naturae et leglbus saiisfecit, tie satisfied both nature and the laws. 
Cic. Tibi dii bcuej'aciant omm.es, May all the guds bless you. Plaut. Mal- 
cdlcit utrlque. Hor. So sulisdo, benedico, malefacio. 



200 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 227. 

Those compounds are often written separately ; and the dative always 
depends not on satis, bad, and mahb, but on the simple verb. 

II. Verba in the passive voice are sometimes followed by a dative of the 
agent, chiefly in the poets ; as, Neque cernltur ulli, Nor is he seen by any 
one. Virg. Nulla tudrum audita mini neque visa. sordTum. Id. But the 
agent after passives is usually in the ablative with a preposition. 
See § 2AS. 

III. The participle in dus is followed by a dative of the 
agent; as, 

/ r nda omnibus enaviganda, The wave which must be passed over 
by all. Hor. Adhibenda (st nobis diligentia, "We must use diligence. 
Cic. Vestigia summorum homlnum sibi tuenda esse dicit. Id. Dulendum 
est tibi ipsi. Hor. Faciendum mihi jnitdvi, ut rcsponderem. Id. 

Hi mark 1. The dative is sometimes wanting when the agent is in- 
definite ; as, Orandum est, vt sit mens sana in corpore sano. Juv. H\c 
vincendum aut moriendum, milltcs, est. Liv. In such examples, tibi, xo- 
bis, nobis, hominlbus, dec, may be supplied. 

Rem. 2. The participle in dus sometimes, though rarely, has, instead 
of the dative, an ablative with a or ab ; as, Deus est vencrandus a nobis. 
Cic 

IV. Verbs signifying motion or tendency are followed by an 
accusative with ad or in ; or by an adverb of place as, 

Ad templum Pallddis ibant. Virg. Ad proetorem homincm traxit. Cic. 
Vtrgit ad septemtriones. Caes. In conspectum venire. Nep. Hue venit. 

So curio, duco, fcro,festlno,fugio, incllno, lego, pergo, porto, proiciplto, 
prope.ro, tendo, to'lo, vado, verto. 

So likewise verbs of calling, exciting, &c ; as, Eurum ad se vocat. 
Virg. Provocasse ad pugnain. Cic. So amino, hortor, inclto, invito, la- 
cesso, stimulo, susclto ; to which may be added atlineo, cenformo, ptrtineo, 
and specto. 

But the dative is sometimes used after these verbs; as, Clamor it calo. 
Virg. Bum tibi literal mem verdant. Crc After renio both constructions 
are used at the same time; as, Venit mihi in mentem. Cic. Venit mihi 
in suspicionem. Nep. Eum venisse Germanis in ainicitiam cognovirat. 
Cies. Propinquo (to approach) takes the dative only. 

$ 226. Est is followed by a dative denoting a posses- 
sor ; — the thing possessed being the subject of the verb. 

Est thus used may generally be translated by the verb to have with the 
dative as its subject; as, Est mihi domi pater, I have a father at home. 
Virg. Sunt nobis mitia poma, We have mellow apples. Id. Gratia nobis 
opus est tuil, We have need of your favor. Cic. lnnocentia? plus pericidi 
(jut) m honoris est. Sail, dnncscislongasregihus esse manus? Ovid. The 
first and second persons of sum are not thus construed. 

Remark. The dative is used with a similar signification after fore, svp~ 
pfto, desum, and drfit ; as, Pauper enim non est, cui rcrum suppetit usus. 
Hor. Si mihi cauda foret, cercopith€cus eram. Mart. Difuit ars vobis. 
Ovid. J\'on dijorc Arsacidis rirtati m. Tac. Lac mihi non defit. Virg. 

§ 227. Sum, and several other verbs, are followed by 
two datives, one of which denotes the object to which 
the other the end for which, any thing is, or is done ; as, 



$ 22S. SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 201 

Mihi maxima est euro, It is a very groat care to me. Cic. Spero nobis 

him- ctnijiinctioncm voluptati /ore, I hope that this union will bring pleasure 
tn us. LI. Matri puellam Juno </<<//7. Ter. Fabio laudi datum est. U 
Vitio /</ tibi n rtuut. Plaut. W tibi hondri hub. tar. Cic. Mature 
l6g ie 04 aire auxilio. Liv. 

Remark 1. The verbs after which two datives occur, are sum, for e % 
fio, do, duco,habeo, reUnquo, tribuo,verto; also rur™, eo, mUto,profieiscor, 
ratio, appono, assigno, cedo, comp&ro, pateo, suppedlto, emo, and some 
others. 

Rem. '2. The dative of the enrf is often used after these verbs, without 
the dative of the object; as, Exemplo est formica, The ant is (serves) for 
an example. I lor. Absentium buna divisui fuere. Liv. Rellquit pignori 
jiutiiinina. Plaut. 

Rem. 3. The verb sum, with a dative of the end, maybe variously 
rendered; as by the words brings, affords, serves, *.Vc. The sign fur 
is often omitted with this dative, especially after sum ; instead of it, as, 
or some other particle, may at times be used ; as, Ignavia erit tibi mag- 
no dedecdri, Cowardice will bring great disgrace to you. Cic. Hoc res 
est argumento , This thing is an argument, or serves as an argument. Id. 
Universos curae habuit. Suet. Una res crat magno usui, .... was of peat 
use. Lucil. Quod tibi magnopSre cordi est, mihi vehementer dispRcet ; 
What is a great pleasure, an object of peculiar interest to you, &c. Id. 

Sometimes the words fit, able, ready, &c. must be supplied, especially 
before a gerund or a gerundive ; as, Cum solvendo civitates non essent, .... 
not able = to pay. Cic. Divltes, qui oneri ferendo essent. Liv. Quaz re- 
stinguendo lgm forent. Liv. Radix ejus est vescendo. Plin. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the dative of the end, a nominative is sometimes 
used ; as,Amor est exitium pecori (Virg.) ; or an accusative, with or with- 
out a preposition ; as, Achilli comitem esse datum ad bellum. Cic. Se Re- 
mis in clientelam dicabant. Caes. ; or an abl. with or without pro. Sail. 

Rem. 5. The dative of the object after sum, &c. often seems rather to 
depend upon the dative of the end, than upon the verb ; as in the exam- 
ple Evo omnibus meis exitio fturo (Cic), in which omnibus meis has the 
same "relation to exitio that pecori has to exitium in the above example 
from Virgil. For the use of the dative after a noun, see § 211, Rem. 5. 

Note 1 . The dative is sometimes used after the infinitive, instead of 
the accusative, when a dative precedes, and the subject of the infinitive is 
omitted ; as, Vobis nccesse est fortlbvs esse viris. Liv. Maximo hbict c.vi 
et duci cvadere contigit. Val. Max. See § § 205, Rem. 6, and 239, Rem. 1 . 
Note 2. In such expressions as Est mihi nomen Alexandro, Cui cog- 
nomen lido additur, the proper name is put in the dative in apposition 
with that which precedes, instead of taking the case of nomen or cogno- 
men. See § 204, Rem. 8. 



DATIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

§ 228. Some particles are followed by the dative of the 
end or object ; as, 

1 Some adverbs derived from adjectives; as, Prorlmi castrts, Very 
near to the camp. Cces. Congruenter nature, Agreeably to nature./ ic 
Propius stabulis armenta tern rent. Virg. Vitegtw homlnum ami* 
Id Bene mihi, bene vobis. Plaut. So obviam ; as, Mihi ubnam vausu 
Cic. Sumos est exadecrsum Mileto. A pp. 



202 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 229. 

2. Certain prepositions, especially in comic writers ; as. Mihi clam est, 
It is unknown to me. Plaut. Contra nobis. Id. But in such instances 
they are rather used like adjectives. 

3. Certain interjections; as, Hcimiki! Ah me ! Virg. VtBmihi! Wo 
is me ! Ter. Vcb victis ! Liv. Vet te J occurs in Plautus. Eccetibi. Cic. 

Note. The dative of the substantive pronouns seems sometimes re- 
dundant, or to affect the meaning but little ; as, Fur mihi es, .... in my 
opinion. Plaut. An ille mihi liber, cui mulier imperat ? Cic. Tongilium 
mihi eduxit. Id. Ubi nunc nobis deus ille magister ? Virg. Ecce tibi 
SebosusJ Cic. Hem tibi talentum argenti Philipplcum est. Plaut. Sibi is 
sometimes subjoined to suits ; as, Suo sibi gladio /tunc jugulo. Plaut. Sibi 
suo tempore. Cic. — This is sometimes called the dativus ethicus. 



ACCUSATIVE. 

ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

$ 229. The object of an active verb is put in the 
accusative ; as, 

Legdtos mittunt, They send ambassadors. Cess. Animus movet corpus. 
The mind moves the body. Cic. Daveniam hanc, Grant this favor. Ter. 
Eum imitdti sunt, They imitated him. Cic. 

Remark 1. An active verb, with the accusative, often takes 
a genitive, dative, or ablative, to express some additional rela- 
tion ; as, 

Te convinco amentise, I convict you of madness. Cic. Da locum meli- 
oribus, Give place to your betters. Ter. Solvit se Teucria luctu, Troy 
frees herself from grief. Virg. See those cases respectively. 

Rem. 2. Such is the difference of idiom between the Latin and English 
languages, that many verbs which are considered active in one, are used 
as neuter in the other. Hence, in translating active Latin verbs, a prepo- 
sition must often be supplied in English; as, Ut me caveret, That he 
should beware of me. Cic. On the other hand, many verbs, which in 
Latin are neuter, and do not take an accusative, are rendered into English 
by active verbs. 

Rem. 3. The verb is sometimes omitted : — 

1. To avoid its repetition; as, Eventum sendtus, quern (&c. dare) vide- 
litur, dabit. Liv. 

2. Dico, and verbs of similar meaning, are often omitted ; as, Quid 
multa? quid? JYe multa, sc. dicam. Quid (sc. de e.o dicam) quod salus 
sociorum in discrlmen vocatur ? Cic. So quid? sc. ais or censes? 

Rem. 4. The accusative is often omitted : — 

1. When it is a reflexive pronoun; as, JVox pracipitat, sc. se. Virg. 
Turn prora avcrtit. Id. Eo lavdtum. sc. me. Hor. The reflexives are 
usually wanting after certain verbs ; as, aboleo, abstineo, augeo, celero, 
continuo, decllno, decoquo.Jlecto, deflccto, incllno, lavo, laxo, moveo, muto, 
vraicipito, remitto, ruo. turbo, vcrto, deverto, revcrto ; and more rarely after 
tnovco, converto, and many others. 

2. When it is something indefinite, has been previously expressed in 



<§> 230, SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 203 

any case, or is easily supplied ; as, Ego, ad quos scribam,nescio, sc. Ultras. 
Cic. De quo et tecum egi diligenter, ct scripsi ad te. Id. Bent fecit Silius. 
Id. Ducit in hostem. Liv. 

Rem. 5. An infinitive, or one or more clauses, may supply 
the place of the accusative ; as, 

Da mild fallere. Hor. Reddes dulce loqui, reddes ridere decorum. Id. 
Cupio me esse clementem. Cic. Jlthcnienses statuerunt ut naves conscen- 
derent. Id. Vereor ne a doctis reprehendar. Id. Sometimes both con- 
structions are united ; as, Di iram miserantur indnem amborum, et tantos 
mortallbus esse labores. Virg. 

hi such constructions, the subject of the clause is sometimes put in the 
accusative as the object of the verb ; as, Ndsti Marcellum, quam tardus sit, 
for JYosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cic. Ilium, ut vivat, optant. Ter. 
An ablative with de may also supply the place of the accusative, by the 
ellipsis of some general word denoting things, facts, &c. ; as, De republicd 
vestrd paucis accipe. Sail. So also of a subject. See § 209, R. 3, (2.) 

Rem. 6. The impersonal verbs miserct,pce?iitct, pudet } tcvdet, 
and piget, likewise miserescii, miseretur, and pertcssum est, are 
followed by an accusative of the person exercising the feeling ; as, 

Eorum nos miseret, We pity them. Cic. See § 215, (1.) Veritum est 
also occurs with such an accusative; Quos non est veritum. Cic. 

Rem. 7. Juvat, delcciat, fcdlit, fugit, prceterit, and decet 
with its compounds take an accusative of the person ; as, 

Te hildri aiiimo esse valde me juvat, That you are in good spirits delights 
me. Cic. Fugit me ad te scribcre. Cic. lllud alteram quam sit difficile, 
non te fvgit, nee verb Csesarem fefellit. Id. 

For mca, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, after refert and interest, see §219, Rem. 1 . 

For the accusative by attraction, instead of the nominative, see § 206, 
(6,) (b.) 

§ 230. Verbs signifying to name or call, to choose, render 
or constitute, to esteem or reckon, are followed by two accusa- 
tives denoting the same person or thing; (§ 210, R. 3, (3.) as, 

Urbem ex ArdiocJii patris nomine Antiochlam vocdvit, He called the city 
Antioch, &c. Just. Me consulem /ease's. Cic. Sulpicium accusatorem 
suum numerdbat. non compctitorem. Id. Cum vos testes habeam. JN T ep. 

Note. An infinitive may supply the place of one accusative. Ov. M. 
13, 299. 

Remark 1. After verbs signifying to esteem or reckon, one of the ac- 
cusatives is often the subject, and the other the predicate, of esse expressed 
or understood ; as, JVe me existimdris ad manendum esse propensiorem. 
Cic. Eum avarum possumus existimdre. Id. Mercurium omnium inven- 
torem a.rtium feruni; hunc vidrum alque itinerum ducem arbitrantur. 
Gees. ; or an adjective supplies the place of the predicate accusative. 

Rem. 2. Many other verbs, besides their proper accusative, take a 
second, denoting a purpose, time, character, &c. ; as, Talem sc imperatorem 
prabuit, He showed himself such a commander. Nep. Quarc ejus fugcr. 
comitem me adjungerem. Cic. Hominum opinio socium me ascribif. tins 
laudibus. Id. Prasta te eum qui mild es cognitus. Cic. Filiam tuam mild 
uxorem posco. Plaut. Petit hanc Saturnia raunus. Ovid. Such con- 
structions may often be referred to apposition, or to an ellipsis of esse. 



204 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 232. 

$231. Verbs of asking, demanding, and teaching, 
and celo (to conceal), are followed by two accusatives, one 
of a person, the other of a thing; as, 

Rogo ti nummos, I ask you for money. Mart. Posce deos veniam, 
Ask favor of the gods. Virg. Quum legent quis muslcam docuerit Epa- 
minondam, When they shall read who taught Epaminondas music. Nep. 
Antigdnus iter omnes eclat, Antigonus conceals his route from all. Id. 

Remark 1. This rule includes the verbs of asking and demanding, 
Jfagito, cflagito, obsecro, oro, exoro, percontor, posco, reposco, postiilo, 
prccor, deprecor, rogo, and interrogo ; of teaching, doceo, edoceo, dedoceo, 
and erudio, which last has two accusatives only in the poets. Cingo 
occurs once with two accusatives ; Arma Tribunitlum cingere digna latus. 
Mart. ; and celare with a dative of the person. Nep. Alcib. 5, 2. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the accusative of a person, verbs of asking and 
demanding often take the ablative with ab or ex ; as, A ore debebam abs te 
has literas poscere. Cic. Veniam oremus ab ipso. Virg. Istud volebam 
ex te percontdri. Plaut. 

Rem. 3. Instead of the accusative of a thing, the ablative alone or with 
de is sometimes used ; as, Docere allquem armis. Liv. Sic ego te eisdem de 
rebus interrogem. Cic. De itinere hostium sendtum eddcet. Sail. Bassus 
noster me de hoc libro celdvit. Cic. Sometimes also a dependent clause. 

Rem. 4. Some verbs of asking, demanding, and teaching, are not fol- 
lowed by two accusatives ; as, exigo, peto, qua.ro, scitor, sciscitor, which 
take an ablative of the person with a preposition ; imbuo, instituo, instruo, 
&c, which are sometimes used with the ablative of the thing, generally 
without a preposition, and are sometimes otherwise construed. 

Rem. 5. Many other active verbs with the accusative of a 
person, sometimes take an accusative of nihil, of the neuter 
pronouns hoc, id, quid, &c, or of adjectives of quantity ; as, 

Fabius ea me vionuit, Fabius reminded me of those things. Cic. JVon 
quo me alTquid jvvare posses. Id. Pauca pro tempore milltes hortdtus. 
Sail. Id adjfita me. Ter. Nee te id cons-do. Cic. Consido and admoneo 
are also found with a novn denoting the thing in the accusative ; as, Con- 
sul am hanc rem amicos. Plaut. Earn rem nos locus admonuit. Sail. 

A preposition may often be understood before the above neuter accu- 
satives. See § 235,' Rem. 5. 

By a similar construction, genus is sometimes used in the accusative, 
instead of the genitive ; as. Scis me oratiencs, aut aliquid id genus scri- 
bcre. Cic. Nullas hoc genus vigi'ias xigiidrunt. Gell. So Omnes mulie- 
brc secus. Suet. 

§ 232. (1.) Some neuter verbs are followed by an accu- 
sative of kindred signification to their own ; as, 

Vitam vivere, To live a life. Plaut. Furcrefurorem. Virg. Istam pug- 
nam pugndbo. Plaut. Pvgndre jtratia. Hor. Lusum insolentem ludere. 
Id. Si non servitutem, serviat. Plaut. Ouemr baud faciles questus. Stat. 
Juraoi verissimum jusjurandum. Cic. IgaoLas jubet ire vias. Val. Flacc. 
Ut suum gaudium gauderemus. Cod. ad Cic. Proficisci magnum iter. 
Cic. This accusative id usually qualified by an adjective. 

(2.) Verbs commonly neuter are sometimes used in an active 
sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative. Neuter verbs 



<§> 233. SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. w 2()5 

are also sometimes followed by an accusative, depending on a 
preposition understood. The following are examples of both 
constructions : — 

With oleo and sapio, and their compounds, redolco, resipio ; — Old un- 
guenta, He smells of perfumes. Ter. Orationcs rcdolcntcs antiquitatem. 
Cic. Mella herbam earn sapiunt, The honey tastes of that herb. Plin. 
Uva picem resipiens. Id. So Sitio honores. Cic. Nee vox homlnem 
sunnt. Vlrg. iiuddrc mella. Id. Morientem nuvdnc clamut. Id. Quis 
pauperiem crepat? Hor. Omnes una manet nox. Id. Ingrdti tumid 
crimen horreo. Cic. Ego nieas queror fortunas. Plaut. PastOrem, salta- 
rd uti Cyclopa, rogdbat. Hor. So the passive ; Nunc agrestem Cyclopa 
movetur. Id. Num id lacrqmat virgo? Does the maid weep on that ac- 
count ? Ter. Quicquid ddlrant reges, plectuntur Jlchlvi. Hor. Nee tu id 
indignari posses. Liv. Quod dublias ne feceris. Piin. Nihil laboro. Cic. 
Corqdcn ardebat Alexin. Virg. Stygias juravlmus undas. Ovid. Nuri- 
gat aequor. Virg. Currimus aequor. Id. Pascuntur sylvas. Id. Malta 
aha pccc.at. Cic. Exsequias ite frequenter. Ovid. Devenere locos. Virg. 
' Accusatives are found in like manner after ambulo, calleo, dolco, equito, 
gaudeo, gemo, latco, latro, nato, palleo, pereo,depereo, procedo, sibllo, tremo, 
trepido. vado, venio, pazeo, sileo, tacco, Uctor, glorior, &c. 

In the above and similar examples, the prepositions ob, propter, per, ad, 
&c., may often be supplied. This construction of neuter verbs is most 
common with the neuter accusatives id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, 
iilud, tantum, quantum, multa, pauca, alia, cetera, and omnia. 

<§> 233. Many verbs are followed by an accusative depend- 
ing upon a preposition with which they are compounded. 

(1.) Active verbs compounded with trans have two accusatives, one de- 
pending upon the verb, the other upon the preposition ; as, Omnern equi- 
tdtum pontem transducit, He leads all the cavalry over the bridge. Caes. 
- Hellespontum copias trajecit. Nep. 

So Pontus scopulos svperjdcit undam. Virg So, also, adverto and 
induco with animum ; as. Id antvium advertit. Ca?s. Id quod anlmum 
induxerat paulisper non tcnuit. Cic. So, also, injicio in Plautus — Ego te 
manum injiciam. 

(2.) Some other active verbs take an accusative in the passive voice 
depending upon their prepositions ; as, Magicas accingicr artes, To be 
prepared for magic arts. Virg. Classis circumveldtur arcem. Liv. Vec- 
tem circumjectus fuisset. Cic. Locum praztervectus sum. Cic. 

But after most active verbs compounded with prepositions which take 
an accusative, the preposition is repeated ; as, Caisar se ad neminem atl- 
junxit (Cic.) ; or a dative is used; as, Hie dies me valde Crasso adjunxit. 
Id. See § 224. 

(3.) Many neuter verbs take an accusative when compounded with pre- 
positions which govern an accusative, but these sometimes become active; 
as, Gcntes qua mare Mud adjacent, The nations which border upon that 
sea. Nep. Obequitdre agmen. Curt. Inceduntuuvstos locos. Tac. Tran- 
si.lui flammas. Ovid. Succedere tecta. Cic. Ludorum diebus, qui cogniti- 
onem intervener ant. Tac. Jldire provinciam. Suet. Caveat ne prrelium 
ineat. Cic. Naves pardtas invtnit. Coas. Ingredi iter pedlbus. Cic. 
Epicuri horti quos modd prceteribdvms. Id. To this rule belong especially 
verbs of motion, and of rest in a place. 
18 



206 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. § 234. 

Remark 1. Some neuter verbs compounded with prepositions which 
take an ablative after them, are at times followed by an accusative; as. 
Neminem conveni, I met with no one. Cic. Qui societatem coicris. Id. 
Aversdri honores. Ovid. Evaclitque celer ripam. Virg. Excedere numerum. 
Tac. Extre limen. Ter. Tiber prafluunt aqua. Hor. 

Rem. 2. The preposition is often repeated after the verb, or a different 
one is used ; as, In Galliam invdsit Antonius. Cic. Ad me adlre quosdam 
mcmini. Id. JVe in senatum accederem. Cic. Regxna ad templum in- 
cessit- Virg. Juxta genitdrem aslat Lavinia. Id. Circum is not repeated. 

Note. Some verbal nouns and verbal adjectives in bundus are followed 
by an accusative, like the verbs from which they are derived ; as, Quid 
tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum ? Wherefore do you receive my hus- 
band hither to you ? Plaut. Quid tibi hanc aditio est ? Id. Vitabundus 
castra. Liv. Meditabundus bellum. Just. Carnif icem imaginabundus. App. 

^ 234. I. When the active voice takes an accusative both 
of a person and thing, the passive retains the latter ; as, 

JRogdtus est sententiam, He was asked his opinion. Liv. Interrogdtus 
causam. Tac. Segetes alimenta</ue deblta dives poscebdtur humus. Ovid. 
Motus doceri gaudt.t Ionicos matura virgo. Hor. Omnes belli artes edoctus. 
Liv. A r osne hoc celdtos tarn diu? Ter. Multa in extis monemur. Cic. 

Note 1. As the object of the active voice becomes the subject of the 
passive, the passive is not followed by an accusative of the object. 

In other respects, the government of the active and passive voices is, in 
general, the same. 

Note 2. The accusative with the infinitive after verbs of saying and 
commanding may become the subject of the passive voice ; as, Dico regem 
esse justum, pass. Rex dicitur Justus esse. See § 272. 

Remark 1. Induo and exuo, though they do not take two accusatives in 
the active voice, are sometimes followed by an accusative of the thing in 
the passive ; as, Induitur atras vestes, She puts on sable garments. Ovid. 
Thoraca indutus. Virg. Exuta est Rorna senectam. Mart. So inducor and 
cingor, which occurs once in the active voice with two accusatives; as, fer- 
rum cingitur. Virg. See § 231, Rem. 1. So recingltur anguem. Ovid. 

Rem. 2. The future passive participle in the neuter gender with est, is 
sometimes, though rarely, followed by an accusative ; as, Multa nuxis rebus 
quum sit agendum. Lucr. Quam (viam) nobis ingrediendum est. Cic. 

II. An adjective, verb, and participle, are sometimes followed 
by an accusative denoting the part to which their signification 
relates ; as, 

JVudus membra, Bare as to his limbs. Virg. Os bumeros^?/e deo similis. 
Id. Micat auribus et tr emit artus. Id. Cetera farce puer bcllo. Id. 5?6- 
ila colla tumentcm. Id. Expleri mentem nequit. Id. Ficti scuta Labici. 
Id. Fractus membra. Hor. Maxlmam partem lacte tivunt. Cses. 

This is a Greek construction, and is usually called Synecdoche or the 
Greek accusative. It is used instead of an ablative of the part affected, 
(§ 250,) and occurs most frequently in poetry. 

III. Some neuter verbs which are followed by an accusative, 
are used in the passive voice, the accusative becoming the sub- 
ject, according to the general rule of active verbs ; as, 

Tertia vivitur cetas. Ovid. Bellum militabitur. Hor. DormUur hierns. 
Mart. Multa peccantur. Cic. Adltur Gnossius Minos. Sen. jYe ab om- 
nibus circumsisteretur. Cses. Hostes invddi posse. Sail. Campus obitur 
aqud. Ovid. Plures ineuntur gratia. Cic. Ea, res silctur. Cic. 



§235. SYNTAX -ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 207 



ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 

§235. (1.) Twenty-six prepositions are followed by 
the accusative. 

These are ad, adversits or adversum, ante, apud, circa or 
circum, circiter, cis or citra, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, 
intra, juxta, oh, penes, per, pone, post, prater, prope, propter, 
secundum, supra, trans, ultra; as, 

Ad tcmplum, To the temple. Virg. Adversus hostes, Against the enemy. 
Liv. Cis Rhenum, This side the Rhine. Caes. Intra muros. Cic. Penes 
reges. Just. Propter aquie rivum. Virg. Inter agendum. Id. Ante do- 
mandum. Id. 

Remark 1. Cis is generally used with names of places ; citra also 
with other words; as, Cis Taurum. Cic. CisPadurn. Liv. Citra Vcliam. 
Cic. Tela hostium citra. Tac. 

Rem. 2. Inter, signifying between, applies to two accusatives jointly, 
and sometimes to a plural accusative alone ; as, Inter me et Scipionem. 
Cic. Inter natos et parentes. Id. Inter nos. Id. 

(2.) In and sub, denoting tendency, are followed by the accu- 
sative ; denoting situation, they are followed by the ablative ; as, 

Via ducit in urbem, The way conducts into the city. Virg. Nosier in 
te amor. Cic. Exercitus sub jugum missus est, The army was sent under 
the yoke. Caes. Magna mei sub terras ibit imago. Virg. Media in urbe, 
In the midst of the city. Ovid. In his fait Ariovistus. Cass. Bella sub 
Iliads mrenlbus gerere, To wage war under the Trojan walls. Ovid. 
Sub nocte silenti. Virg. 

The most common significations of in, with the accusative, are, into, 
towards, until, for, against, — with the ablative, in, upon, among. In some 
instances, in and sub, denoting tendency, are followed by the ablative, and, 
denoting situation, by the accusative ; as, In conspectu meo audet venire. 
Phasd. JVationes quce in amicitiam populi Romdni, ditionem^e essent. Id. 
Sub jugo dictator hostes misit. Liv. Hostes sub montem consedisse. Cass. 

In and sub, in diiferent significations, denoting neither tendency nor 
situation, are followed sometimes by the accusative, and sometimes by 
the ablative ; as, Amor crescit in horas. Ovid. Hostllem in modum. Cic. 
Quod in bono servo did posset. Id. Sub ea conditione. Ter. Sub poena 
mortis. Suet. 

In expressions relating to time, sub, denoting at or in, usually takes the 
ablative ; denoting near, about, either the accusative or ablative ; as, Sub 
tempore, At the time. Lucan. Sub lucem (Virg.), Sub luce (Liv.), 
About daybreak. 

(3.) Super is commonly followed by the accusative ; but when 
it signifies either on or concerning, it takes the ablative ; as, 

Super labentem culmina tecti, Gliding over the top of the house. Virg. 
Super tene.ro prosternit gramme corpus, He stretches his body on the ten- 
der grass. Id, Multa super Priamo rogitans suj)er Hectore multa, .... con- 
cerning Priam, &c. Id. The compound desuper is found with the 
accusative, and insuper with the accusative and ablative. 

(4.) Subter generally takes the accusative, but sometimes 
the ablative ; as, 

Subter terras, Under the earth. Liv. Subter densd testudine. Virg 



208 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE. § 236. 

(5.) Clam is followed either by the accusative or ablative ; 
as, 

Clara vos, Without your knowledge. Cic. Clam patre. Ter. Clam 
also occurs with a genitive — Clara patris (Ter.) ; and even with a dative 
— Mihi clam est. Flaut. 

Rem. 3. The adverbs versus and usque are sometimes used with an 
accusative, which depends on a preposition understood; as, Brundusium 
versus. Cic. Termlnos usque Libya. Just. Usque Ennam prqfecti. Cic. 
Versus is always placed after the accusative. 

Rem. 4. Prepositions are often used without a noun depending upon 
them, but such noun may usually be supplied by the mind ; as, Multis 
post annis, i. e. post id tempus. Cic. Circum Concordia, sc. ad em. 
Sail. 

Rem. 5. The accusative, in many constructions, is supposed to depend 
on a preposition understood. The preposition cannot, however, always 
be properly expressed, in such instances; nor is it easy, in every case, to 
say what preposition should be supplied. For the accusative without a 
preposition after neuter verbs, see § 232. For the case of synecdoche, see 
§ 234, II. The following examples may here be added : — Homo id atdtis. 
Cic. Quid tibi cetdtis vidcor ? Flaut. Profcctus est id temporis. Cic. 
Illud hora. Suet. Dcvenere locos. Virg. Propior montem. Sail. Prox- 
imo Pompeium sedebam. Cic. A te bis terve summum litems accepi. Id. 
ldne estis auctores mihi? Ter. Vix equldem ausim ajjirmdre quod quidam 
auctores sunt. Liv. In. most of these, ad may be understood. 



ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE. 

§ 236. Nouns denoting duration of time, or extent of 
space, are put, after other nouns and verbs, in the accusa- 
tive, and sometimes after verbs in the ablative ; as, 

Vixi annos triginta, I have lived thirty years. Decreverunt interca- 
larium quinque et quadraginta dies longum, They decreed an intercalary 
month forty-five days long. Cic. Annos natus viginti septem, Twenty - 
seven years old. Id. Dies totos de virtute dlsserunt. Id. Duces qui una 
cum Scrtorio omnes annos fuerant. Caes. Biduum Laodicea fui. Cic. 
Te jam annum audientem Cratippum. Id. Duas fossas quindecim pedes 
latas perduxit, He extended two ditches fifteen feet broad. Cass. Cam 
ubessem ah Amano iter unius diei. Cic. Tres pateat coeli spatium non 
amplius ulnas. Virg. A porta stadia centum et viginti processimus. Cic. 
Vixit annis viginti novem, imperdvit triennio. Suet. JEsculapii templum 
quinque millibus passuum distans. Liv. Ventidius bidui spatio abest 
ab eo. Cic. 

Remark 1. Nouns denoting time or space, used to limit other nouns, 
are often put in the genitive or ablative. See § 211, Rem. 6. 

Rem. 2. A term of time not yet completed, may be expressed by an 
ordinal number ; as, JYos vicesimum jam diem patimur hebescere aciem 
horum auctoritdtis . Cic. Punico bello duodecimum annum Italia urtbd- 
tur. Liv. 

Rem. 3. The accusative or ablative of space is sometimes omitted, 
while a genitive depending on it remains; as, Castra qua aberant bidui 
sc. spatium or spatio. Cic 



<§> 237, 238. syntax. — accusative after adverbs. 209 

Rem. 4. To denote a place by its distance from another, the ablative is 
commonly used ; as, Milllbus passuum sex a Casaris castris consedit. Cees. 

For abhinc, with the accusative, see § 253, Rem. 2. For the ablative 
denoting difference of time or space, see § 256, Rem. 16. 

Rem. 5. A preposition is sometimes expressed before an accusative of 
time or space, but it generally modifies the meaning ; as, Quern per decern 
annos aluimus,... .during ten years. Cic. 

Rem. 6. M is sometimes used with the measure of distance instead of 
the place from which the distance is reckoned ; as, A milllbus passuum 
duobus castra posuerunt, Two miles from the place, or, Two miles off. Cass. 

ACCUSATIVE OF PLACE. 

§ 237. After verbs expressing or implying motion, the 
name of the town in which the motion ends is put in the 
accusative without a preposition ; as, 

Regulus Carthaginem rediit, Regulus returned to Carthage. Cic. 
Capuam jlectit iter, He turns his course to Capua. Li v. Calpurnius 
Romam prqficiscitur. Sail. Romam erat nuncidtum. Cic. 

Remark 1. The accusative, in like manner, is used after iter with sum, 
habeo, &c. ; as, Iter est mild Lanuvium. Cic. Ccesdrem iter habere Capuam. 
Id. So with a verbal noun ; as, Jldventus Romam. Li v. 

Rem. 2. The preposition to be supplied is in, denoting into, which is 
sometimes expressed; as, In EphSsum abii. Plaut. Ad, when expressed 
before the name of a town, denotes not into, but to or near ; as, Ccesar ad 
Genevam pervenit. Caes. Cum ego ad Heracleam accederem. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Instead of the accusative, a dative is sometimes, though rare- 
ly, used ;'as, Carthagini nuncios mittam. Hor. 

Rem. 4. Domus in both numbers, and rus in the singular, 
are put in the accusative, like names of towns ; as, 

Jte domum, Go home. Virg. G alii domos abler ant. Liv. Rus ibo. Ter. 

When domus is limited by a genitive, or a possessive adjective pronoun, 
it sometimes takes a preposition : with other adjectives, the preposition is 
generally expressed ; as, Non introeo in nostram domum. Flaut. Venisse in 
domum Leccae. Cic. Ad earn domum profecti sunt. Id. In domos supe- 
xasscanderecurafuit. Ovid. So lar em suum, App., or ad laremsuum. Cic. 

Domus is sometimes used in the accusative after a verbal noun ; as, 
Domum reditionis spe sublatd. Cass. So, Reditus Romam. Cic. 

Rem. 5. Before all other names of places in which the motion ends, 
except those of towns, and domus and rus, the preposition is commonly 
used ; as, Ex Asld transis in Eurupam. Curt. Te in Eplrum venisse 
gaudeo. Cic. But it is sometimes omitted ; as, Inde Sardinian! cum classe 
venit. Cic. Italiam Lavinaque venit litora. Virg. Navigare iEgyptum 
pergit. Liv. Raptdum veniemus Oaxen. Virg. The names of nations 
are used in the same manner ; as, Nocte ad Nervios pervencrunt. Caes 
JVos ibimus Afros. Virg. So insiilas rubri maris navigant. Plin. 

ACCUSATIVE AFTER ADVERBS AND INTERJEC- 
TIONS. 
§ 238. 1. The adverbs pridie and postridie are often followed by 
the accusative ; as, Pridie cum diem. Cic. Pridie idus. Id. Postridie 
ludos. Id. So iiropius and proxXmt : see § 235, Rem. 5. 

18* 



210 SYNTAX. — VOCATIVE. §239,240. 

The accusative, in such examples, depends on ante or post understood. 

For the genitive after pridie and postridic, see § 212. Rem. 4, Note G. 

The adverb bene is sometimes followed by the accusative in forms of 
drinking health ; as, Proplno, bend vos, bend nos, bene te, bene me, bend 
nostram Stephanium. Piaut. Bene Messalam. Tibull. 

2. The interjections en, ecce, O, heu, and pro, are sometimes 
followed by the accusative ; as, 

En quatuor aras ! ecce duns tibi Daphni! Behold four altars ! lo, two 
for thee, Daphnis ! Virg. Eccum ! eccos ! eccillum ! for ecce eum ! ecce cos ! 
ecce ilium ! Plaut. prteclarum custodem ! Cic. Heu me infellcem ! Ter. 
Pro Deilm hominumque fidem ! Cic. 

So also ah, eheu, and hem ; as, Ah me me ! Catull. Eheu me miserum I 
Ter. Hem astutias ! Id. 

The accusative is also used in exclamations without an interjection ; 
as, Miseram me.' Ter. Hominem, gravem et civem egregium ! Cic. 

SUBJECT-ACCUSATIVE. 

§ 239. The subject of the infinitive mood is put in 
the accusative ; as, 

Molestb Pompeium id ferre constclbat, that Pompey took that ill, was 
evident. Cic. Eos hoc nomine appelldri fas est. Id. Miror te ad me 
nihil scribere, I wonder that you do not write to me. Cn. Mag. in Cic. 
Campos jubet esse patentes. Virg. 

Remark 1. The subject of the infinitive is omitted when it precedes 
in the genitive or dative case ; as, Est adolescentis majores natu vereri, sc. 
eum. Cic. Expedit bonas esse nobis, sc. vos. Ter. ; or rarely in the accusa- 
tive. Sail. C. 5], 29; or when its place is supplied by a possessive pronoun 
expressed or understood. Sail. Cat. 4. 

Rem. 2. A substantive pronoun is also sometimes omitted before the 
infinitive, when it is the subject of the preceding verb ; as, PolUcitus sum 
suseepturnm (esse), sc. me, I promised (that I) would undertake. Ter. 
Sed reddere posse negdbat, sc. se. Virg. 

Rem. 3. The subject of the infinitive is often omitted, when it has been 
previously expressed, or is a general indefinite word for person or thing; as, 
Est aliud iracundum esse, aliud irdtum, sc. hominem. Cic. See § 269, R. 1. 

The subject-accusative, like the nominative, is often wanting. See § 209, 
Rem. 3. The subject of the infinitive may be an infinitive or a clause. 
See § 201, IV. 

For the verbs after which the subject-accusative with the infinitive is 
used, see § 272. For the accusative in the predicate after infinitives neu- 
ter and passive, see § 2L0. 



VOCATIVE. 

•§> 240. The vocative is used, either with or without 
an interjection, in addressing a person or thing. 

The interjections O, heu, and pro, also ah, au, ehem, eheu, 
elw, ehodum, eja, hem, heus, hui, io, ohe, and vah, are often 
followed by the vocative ; as, 

formose puer ! O beautiful boy I Virg. Heu virgo ! Id. Pro sancte 



§ 242. SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 211 

Jupiter! Cic. Ah virgo infelix! Virg. Heus Syrel Ter. Ohe libelle! 
Mart. 

The vocative is sometimes omitted, while a genitive depending upon it 
remains; as, miser ce sortis! sc. homines. Lucan. 

Note. The vocative forms no part of a proposition, but serves to 
designate the person to whom a proposition is addressed. 



ABLATIVE. 
ABLATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 241. Eleven prepositions are followed by the abla- 
tive. 

These are a, ab, or abs ; absque, coram, cum, de, e or ex, 
palam, prce, pro, sine, tenus ; as, 

Ab Mo tempore, From that time. Liv. A scribendo, From writing. Cic. 
Cum exercitu, With the army. Sail. Certis de causis, For certain 
reasons. Cic. Ex fugd, From flight. Id. Palam popnlo. Liv. Sine 
labore. Cic. Capulo tenus. Virg. 

For in, sub, super, subter, and clam, with the ablative, see § 235, (2,) &c. 

Remark 1. Tenus is always placed after its case. It sometimes takes 
the genitive, chiefly the genitive plural. See § 221, III. 

Rem. 2. The adverbs procul and simul are sometimes used with an ab- 
lative, which depends on a preposition understood ; as, Procul mari, sc. a; 
Far from the sea. Liv. Simul nobis habitat, sc. cum. Ovid. So &que. Plaut. 

Rem. 3. Some of the above prepositions, like those which are follow- 
ed by the accusative, are occasionally used without a noun expressed ; as, 
Citm coram surnus. Cic. Cum fratre an sine. Id. 

Rem. 4. The ablative is often used without a preposition, where, in 
English, a preposition must be supplied. This occurs especially in poetry. 
In some such cases, a preposition may properly be introduced in Latin; 
in others, the idiom of that language does not permit it. 

<§> 242. Many verbs compounded with a, ab, abs, de, e, ex, 
and super, are followed by an ablative depending upon the prep- 
osition ; as, 

Abesse urbe, To be absent from the city. Cic. Ablre sedlbus, To depart 
from their habitations. Tac. Ut se maledictis non abstineant. Cic. De- 
irudunt naves scopulo, They push the ships from the rock. Virg. JYavi 
egressus est. Nep. Excedere jinibus. Liv. Ccesar prcelio supersedere 
statuit. Cces. So the adjectives exsul and extorris, with patrid and domo, 
Sail. J. 14, and so the verbal eruptio, Mutina eruptio. Cic. 

Remark 1. The preposition is often repeated, or a different one is 
used ; as, Detrahere de tuA famd nunquam cogitavi. Cic. Ex oculis abi- 
erunt. Liv. Exire a patrid. Cic. Exire de vitd. Id. 

Rem. 2. These compound verbs are often used without a noun ; but, 
in many cases, it may be supplied by the mind ; as, Equites degressi ad 
pedes, sc. equis. Liv. Ablre ad Deos, sc. vitd. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Some verbs compounded with ab, de, and ex, instead of the 
ablative, are sometimes followed by the dative. See § 224, Rem. 1 and 
2. Some compounds, also, of neuter verbs, occur with the accusative. 
See § 233, Rem. 1. 



212 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AH TEH CERTAIN NOUNS, &C. 



ABLATIVE AFTER CERTAIN NOONS, ADJECTIVES, 
AND VERBS. 

<§> 243. Opus and usus, signifying need, are usually 
limited by the ablative ; as, 

Auctoritate tud nobis opus est, We need your authority. Cic. Nunc 
anlmis opus nunc pectdre fir mo. Virg. Naves, quibus proconsuli usus non 
esset; Ships, for which the proconsul had no occasion. Cic. Nunc virlbus 
usxis, nunc manlbus rapidis. Virg. 

Remark 1. Opus and usus are sometimes followed by the ablative of a 
perfect participle ; as, Ita facto et maturate opus esse, That there was 
need of so doing and of hastening. Liv. Usus facto est milii. Ter. After 
opus, a noun is sometimes expressed with the participle ; as, Opus fuit 
Hirtio convento (Cic.) ; Opus sibi esse domino ejus invento (Liv.) ; — or a 
supine is used ; as, Ita dictu opus est. Ter. 

For the genitive and accusative after opus and usus, see § 211, Rem. 11. 

Rem. 2. Opus and usus, signifying need, are only used with the verb 
sum. Opus is sometimes the subject, and sometimes the predicate, of that 
verb; usus the subject only. Opus is rarely followed by an ablative, ex- 
cept when it is the subject of the verb. The thing needed may, in gene- 
ral, be put either in the nominative or the ablative ; as, Dux nobis opus 
est (Cic), or Duce nobis opus est. The former construction is most 
common with neuter adjectives and pronouns, and is always used with 
those which denote quantity, as tantum, quantum, plus, &c. ; as, Quod 
non opus est. asse carum est. Cato apud Sen. 

For the ablative of character, quality, &c, limiting a noun, see §211, 
Rem. 6. 

<§> 244. Dignus, indignus, contentus, prcedltus, and fre- 
tus, are followed by the ablative ; as, 

Dignus laude, Worthy of praise. Hor. Vox populi majestate indigna, 
A speech unworthy of the dignity of the people. Caes. Bestice eo conten- 
ts non qucerunt amplius. Cic. Homo scelere praditus. Id. Plerique in- 
genio fired. Id. So, JEquum est me atque illo. Plaut. 

Remark 1. Dignk, also takes the ablative, and dignor the accusative 
with the ablative ; as, Peccat cruce digniiis. Hor. Me dignor honure. Virg. 

Rem. 2. Dignus and indignus are sometimes followed by the genitive; 
as, Suscipe cogitationem dignisstmam tnai virtutis. Cic. Indignus avorum. 
Virg. ; and dignus, in Plautus, rarely by the accusative and by the dative. 

Instead of an ablative, they often take an infinitive, or a subjunctive 
clause, with qui or ut ; as, Erat dignus amari. Virg. Dignus qui imperet. 
Cic. Non sum dignus, ut figam palum in parietem. Plaut. 

<§> 245. I. Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vcscor, are 
followed by the ablative ; as, 

His vocibus usa est, She used these words. Virg. Frui voluptate, To 
enjoy pleasure. Cic. Fungi tur officio, He performs his duty. Id. Oppldo 
potlti sunt. Liv. Vescitur aura. Virg. 

So the compounds abutor, and rarely deutor, perfruor, dcfiungor, and 
pcrfungor. Utor may take a second ablative denoting character* as, Me 
fiactli me uUtur patre, He shall have in me an indulgent father. Ter. 

Rem. 1. Utor, fruor, fiungor, potior, vescor, &c, instead of an ablative, 



§246,247. syntax. — ablative of cause, &c. 213 

sometimes take an accusative ; as, Guam rem medlci utuntur. Varr. In- 
genium firm. Ter. Datames militare munus fungens. Nep. Gentem ali- 
quant inborn nostrum putiiurum putem. Cic. Sacras lauros vescar. Tibull. 
Potior is, also, found with the genitive. (See § 220, 4.) Dignor is used 
botii as active and passive. 

II. Lector, gaudeo, glorior, jacto, nitor, sto, fido, confido, 
muto, miscco, cpulor, vivo, assuesco, and consto (to consist of), 
are often followed by the ablative without a preposition ; as, 

LcBtortud dignitate,I rejoice in your dignity. Cic. Gaude tuo bono. Id. 
Sud victoria gloridri. Caes. Jactat supplicio Levando. Cic. JViti aequitate. 
Id. Censdris opinione standum non putdvit. Id. Fidere cursu. Ovid. 
So assurfacio, commuto, latificor, and permisceo. Compotio takes the ace. 
of the person, and, like compos, the abl. or gen. of the thing. 

Remark 1. Lator, gaudeo, and glorior, are sometimes followed by the 
accusative. See § 232, (2.) Fido, confido, and assuesco, often take the 
dative. See § 223, Rem. 2. So also miscco. 

Rem. 2. When a preposition is expressed after the above verbs, lator 
and gaudeo usually take de ; glorior and jacto, de or in; sto, fido and con- 
fido, in; nitor and assuesco, in or ad; misceo, cum; and consto, ex. 

III. The ablative without a preposition is used after a verb, 
especially after sum and fore, to denote the situation or circum- 
stances of the subject of the verb : as, 

Tamcn magno timore sum, Yet I am in great fear. Cic. Quanto fuerim 
dolore memiuisti. Id. Maximo honore Servius Tullius erat. Liv. Turba. 
atquc seditionibus sine curd aluntur. Sail. C. 37. 

But the preposition in is often used before such ablatives, especially if 
an adjective or pronoun is not joined with them; as, Sum in expectatione 
omnium rerum. Cic. Etsi erdmus in magnd spe. Id. 

§ 246. Perfect participles denoting origin are often 
followed by the ablative of the source, without a prepo- 
sition. 

Such are natus, progndtus,satus, credtus, cretus, editus, genitus, generd- 
tus, ortus ; to which may be added oriundus. 

Thus, Kate ded ! O son of a goddess ! Virg. Tantdlo progndius, De- 
scended from Tantalus. Cic. Satus JYereide, Sprung from a Nereid. Ovid. 
Credtus regc. Id. Mcanore creti. Virg. Edite regibus. Hor. Diis gen- 
ite. Virg. Argolico generdtus Alemone. Ovid. Ortus nullis majoribus. 
Hor. Cmlesti semine oriundi. Lucr. 

Remark 1. The preposition is also rarely omitted after genero and nas- 
cor ; as, Ut patre certo nascerere. Cic. So, Fortes creantur fortibus. Hor. 

Rem. 2. The prepositions a or ab, de, e or ex, are often expressed after 
these participles, especially in prose. 



ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, &c. 

<§> 247. Nouns denoting the cause, manner, means, 
and instrument, after adjectives and verbs, are put in the 
ablative without a preposition j as, 



214 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, &C $ 248. 

Animus oeger avaritia, A mind diseased through avarice. Sail. Pallere 
metu, To be pale through fear. Ovid. Quod ssvitia temporis non capi 

poterat. Sail. Omnibus modis miser sum, I am every way miserable. Ter. 

Silentio audltus est, He was heard in silence. Cic. Lento gradu procedit. 

Val. Max. Jlmlcos observantia, rem parsimonia retinuit ; He retained 

his friends by attention, his property by frugality. Cic. Auro ostro^we 
decori. Virg. Vi morbi consumptus es. Cic. JEgrcscit medendo. Virg. 

Trabs saucia securi, A tree cut with the axe. Ovid. Casus est virgis, 

Cic. Beneficio meo fratres sunt. Sail. Lanidbant dentlbus artus. Virg. 

Remark 1. When the cause is a voluntary agent, it is put in the ac- 
cusative with the preposition ob, propter, or per ; as, JYon est cequum we 
propter vos declpi. Ter. These prepositions, and a or ab, de, e or ex, and 
pro,, are also sometimes used when the cause is not a voluntary agent ; as, 
Ob adulterium ccesi. Virg. Nee loqui pree mcerore potuit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. After active verbs, the causeis seldom expressed by the simple 
ablative, but either by a preposition, or by the ablatives causa, gratia. &.c, 
with a genitive ; as, Si hoc honoris mei causa susceperis. Cic. With 
causd, &c, the adjective pronoun is commonly used, for the corresponding 
substantive pronoun; as, Tc abesse meat causa, moleste fero. Cic. Some- 
times the ablative with ductus, motus, captus, &c, is used ; as, Mild benev- 
olentia ductus tribuebat omnia. Cic. ; but these are sometimes omitted. 

Rem. 3. The maimer is often expressed with cum, especially when an 
adjective is joined with it ; as, Quum videret oratdres cum severitate 
audlri. Cic. Magno cum metu dicere incipio. Id. Sometimes also with 
e or ex; as, Ex industrid, On purpose. Liv. Ex integro, Anew. Quinct. 

Rem. 4. The means is often expressed by per with an accusative; as, 
Quod per scelus adeptus est. Cic. When it is a voluntary agent, it can 
only be so expressed, or by the ablative opera with a genitive or possessive 
pronoun ; as, Per praeconem vendere aliquid. Cic. Opera eorum effectum 
est. Just. JYon mea opera, evenit. Ter. Yet persons are sometimes con- 
sidered as involuntary agents, and as such expressed by the ablative with- 
out a preposition ; as, Servos, quibus silvas publicas depopuldtus erat. Cic. 

Rem. 5. The instrument is rarely used with a preposition. The poets, 
however, sometimes prefix to it a or ab, and even sub, and sometimes 
other prepositions; as, Trajcctus ab ense. Ovid. Exercere solum sub 
vomgre. Virg. Cum, with the instrument, is seldom used except by infe- 
rior writers; as, Cum voce maxima conclamdre. Gell. 

§ 248. I. The voluntary agent of a verb in 
the passive voice is put in the ablative with a or ab ; as, 

(In the active voice,) Clodius me diligit, Clodius loves me (Cic.) ; (in 
the passive,) A Clodio diligor, I am loved by Clodius. Lauddtur ab his, 
culpdtur ab illis. Hor. 

Remark 1. The general word for persons, after verbs in the passive 
voice, is often understood; as, Probitas lauddtur, sc. ab hominibus. Juv. 
So after the passive of neuter verbs ; as, Discurritur. Virg. Toto certd- 
tum est corpore rcgni. Id. 

The agent is likewise often understood, when it is the same as the sub- 
ject of the verb, and the expression is equivalent to the active voice with 
a reflexive pronoun, or to the middle voice in Greek ; as, Cum omncs in 
omni genere scelerum volutentur, sc. a se. Cic. 

Rem. 2. Neater verbs, also, are often followed by an abla- 
tive of the voluntary agent with a or ab ; as, 



§249,250. SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, &C. 215 

M. Marcellus periit ab Annibale, M. Marcellus was killed by Hannibal. 
Plin. Ne vir ab hoste cadat. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. The preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, JVec conjuge captus. 
Ovid. Colitur linigerd turba. Id. Pereat meis excisus Arglvis. Hor. 

For the dative of the agent after the passive voice, and participles in 
dus, see § 225, II. and III. 

It. The involuntary agent of a verb in the passive voice, is put 
in the ablative without a preposition, as the cause, means, or instrument; 
as (in the active voice), Terror conficit omnia (Lucan.) ; — (in the passive), 
Maximo dolore conficior. Cic. Frangi cupiditate. Id. 

But the involuntary agent is sometimes considered as voluntary, and 
takes a or ab ; as, A voluptatibus deseri. Cic. A natura datum homini 
vivendi curriculum. Id. 

<§> 249. I. A noun denoting that with which the 
action of a verb is performed, though not the instrument, 
is put in the ablative without a preposition. 

Remark 1. This construction is used with verbs signifying 
to fill, to furnish, to load, to array, to adorn, to enrich, and 
many others of various significations ; as, 

Terrore impletur Africa, Africa is filled with terror. Sil. InstruxSre 
epulis mensas, They furnished the tables with food. Ovid. Ut ejus am- 
mum his opinionibus imbuas, That you should imbue his mind with these 
sentiments. Cic. Naves oner ant auro, They load the ships with gold. 
Viro-. Cumxdat altaria donis, He heaps the altars with gifts. Id. Terra 
sc oramlne vestit, The earth clothes itself with grass. Id. Molllbus orna- 
bui cornua sertis. Id. Me tanto honore konestas. Plaut. Equis Africam 
locupletdvit. Colum. Stadium tuum nidlct me nova voluptate affecit. Cic. 
- Terrain nox obruit umbris. Lucr. 

Rem. 2. Several verbs, denoting to fill, instead of the ablative, some- 
times take a genitive. See § 220, 3. 

II. A noun denoting that in accordance with which any 
thing is, or is done, is often put in the ablative without a 
preposition ; as, 

Kostro more, According to our custom. Cic. Institute suo Casar 
copias suas eduxit ; Caesar, according to his practice, led out his forces. 
Cses Id factum consilio meo. Ter. Pacem fecit his conditionibus. JNep. 

The prepositions de, ex, and pro, are often expressed with such nouns. 

III. The ablative denoting accompaniment, is usually joined 
with cum ; as, 

Vavamur egentcs cum conjugibus et libgris ; Needy, we wander with 
our wives and children. Cic. Sapc admirari soleo cum hoc C. .Laelio. 
Cic Julium cum his ad te Uteris misi. Id. Ingressus est cum gladio. 
Id ' But cum is sometimes omitted, especially before words denoting 
military forces, when limited by an adjective ; as, Ad castra Casaris om- 
nibus copiis contenderunt. Cses. Inde toto exercitu profectus. Liv. 

<§> 250. A noun, adjective, or verb, may be followed 
by the ablative, denoting in what respect their signification 
is taken ; as, 



216 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, &C. § 251. 

Pietdte Jilius, consiliis parens ; In affection a son, in counsel a parent. 
Cic. lieges nomine magis qudm imperio, Kings in name rather than in 

authority. Nep. Oppldum nomine Bibrax. Cess. Jure perltus, Skilled 

in law. Cic. Anxius ammo, Anxious in mind. Tac. Pedibus ceger, Lame 
in his feet. Sail. Crine ruber, niger ore. Mart. Fronte lotus. Tac. 

Major natu. Cic. Maximus natu. Liv. Animo angi, To be troubled in 

mind. Cic. Contremisco totd mente et omnibus artubus, I am agitated in 
my whole mind and in every limb. Id. Captvs mente, Affected in mind, 
i. e. deprived of reason. Id. Altero oculo capitur. Liv. Ingenii laude 
floruit. Cic. Pollere nobilitdte. Tac. Animoque et corpore torpet. Hor. 

Remark 1. To this principle may be referred the following 
rules : — 

(1.) Adjectives of plenty or want are sometimes limited by 
the ablative ; as, 

Domus plena servis, A house full of servants. Juv. Dives agris, Rich 
in land. Hor. Ferax sceculum bonis artlbus. Plin. Inops verbis, De- 
ficient in words. Cic. Orba fratribus, Destitute of brothers. Ovid. Vid- 
uum arboribus solum. Colum. Kudus agris. Hor. See § 213, R. 4 and 5. 

(2.) Verbs signifying to abound, and to be destitute, are fol- 
lowed by the ablative; as, 

Scatentem belluis pontum, The sea abounding in monsters. Hor. Urbs 
redundat militibus, The city is full of soldiers. Auct. ad Her. Villa 

abundat porco, haido, agno, gallind, lacte, caseo, melle. Cic. Virum qui 

pecunid egeat, A man who is in want of money. Id. Carere culpd, To 
be free from fault. Id. Mea adolescentia indiget illorum bond existima- 
tione. Id. Abundat audacia, consilio et ratione deficitur. Id. 

To this rule belong abundo, exube.ro, redundo, scateo, affluo, circumfluo, 
diffluo, supeifluo ; — careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, dejicior, destituor, &c. 

Rem. 2. The genitive is often used to denote in ichat respect, after ad- 
jectives and verbs; (see §§ 213 and 220;) sometimes, also, the accusa- 
tive ; see § 234, II. ; or the ablative with a preposition. 

Rem. 3. The ablative denoting in respect to or concerning, is used after 
facio and sum, without a preposition ; as, Quid hoc nomine facialis ? 
What can you do with this man? Cic. JYescit quid faciat auro. Flaut. 
Metum ceperunt quidnam se futurum esset. Liv. Quid me fiat parvi pen- 
dis. Ter. In this construction, the preposition de seems to be understood, 
and is sometimes expressed ; as, Quid de Tulliola med fiet. Cic. 

<§>251. A noun denoting that of which any thing is 
deprived, or from which it is separated, is often put in the 
ablative without a preposition. 

This construction occurs after verbs signifying to deprive, to 
free, to debar, to drive away, to remove, and others of similar 
meaning. Thus, 

JVudantur arbor es foliis, The trees are stripped of leaves. Plin. Hoc me 
libera metu, Free me from this fear. Ter. Tune earn philosophiam 
sequere, qua spoliat nos judicio, privat approbatione, orbat sensibus? Cic. 
Solvit se Teucria luctu. Virg. Te illis sedlbus arcebit. Cic. Q. Varium 
pellere possessionlbus condtus est. Id. Quod M. Catonem tribunatu tuo 
remocisses. Id Me leves chori sccernunt populo. Hor. 



<§>252, 253. syntax. — ablative of price and time. 217 

To this rule belong fraudo, nudo, orbo, privo, spolio ; — arceo, expedio, 
intercludo, laxo, levo, libera, moveo, removeo, pello, prohibeo, solvo, &c. 

Remark 1. Most of the above verbs are more or less frequently fol- 
lowed by a, ab, de, e, or ex ; as, Arcem ab incendio liberdvit. Cic. Solvere 
belluam ex catenis. Auct. ad Her. Remove te a suspicione. Cic. For 
arceo, &c. with the dat., see § 224, R. 2. Arceo sometimes also takes the 
infinitive. Ovid. M. 3, 88. 

Rem. 2. The active verbs induo, exuo, dono, impertio, adspcrgo, insper- 
go, intercludo, circumdo, prohibeo, instead of an ablative of the thing with 
an accusative of the person, sometimes take an accusative of the thing 
and a dative of the person ; as, Unam (vestem) juveni induit, He puts one 
upon the youth. Virg. Dondre munera civibus, To present gifts to the 
citizens. Cic. 

Interdlco is sometimes used with a dative of the person and an ablative 
of the thing; as, Quibus cum aqua et igni inter dixissent. Cses. 

Abdico takes sometimes an ablative, and sometimes an accusative of the 
thing renounced ; as, Abdicdre se magistratu. Cic. Abdicdre magistra- 
tum. Sail. In Plautus, circumduco, to cheat, takes the abl. of the thing. 

ABLATIVE OF PRICE. 

§ 252. The price of a thing is put in the ablative, 
except when expressed by the adjectives tanti, quanti, 
pluris, minoris ; as, 

Cum te trecentis talentis regi Cotto vendidisses, When you had sold 
yourself to king Cottus for three hundred talents. Cic. Vendidit hie 
auro patriam, This one sold his country for gold. Virg. Cibus uno asse 
vendlis. Plin. Constitit quadringentis millibus. Varr. Denis in diem 
assibus animam et corpus (militum) cestimdri. Tac. Vendo meum non 
" pluris qudm ceteri, fortasse etiam minoris. Cic. 

Remark 1. Tantldem, quanticunquc, quantiquanti, and quantlvis, com- 
pounds of tanti and quanti, are also put in the genitive ; as, Tantldem 

frumentum emerunt quantidem Cic. Majoris also is thus used in 

Phsedrus ; Multd majoris aldpce mecum veneunt. 

Rem. 2. With a noun, tantus, quantus, &c, are commonly put in the , 
ablative ; as, Qitam tanto pretio meredtus est. Cic. Cum pretio minore 
redimendi captivos copia jieret. Liv. Pluris pretii coquus. Sail. Tanto, 
quanta, andplure, are sometimes found without a noun ; as, Plure venit. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The ablative of price is often an adjective without a noun ; 
as, magno, permagno, parvo, paululo, tantulo, minimo, plurlmo, vili, n/mio. 
These adjectives refer to some noun understood, as pretio, cere, and the 
like, which are sometimes expressed ; as, Parvo pretio ea vendidisse. Cic. 

Rem. 4. With valeo an accusative is sometimes used; as, Denarii 
died, quod denos ceris valebant. Varr. 

ABLATIVE OF TIME. 

§ 253. A noun denoting the time at or within which 
any thing is said to be, or to be done, is put in the abla- 
tive without a preposition ; as, 

Die quinto decessit, He died on the fifth day. Nep. Hoc tempore At 
this time. Cic. Tertid vigilia erxiptioncm fecerunt. Tiiey made a sally at 
19 



218 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF PLACE. $ 254. 

the third watch. Ctes. Ut hieme navlges, That you should sail in the 
winter. Cic. His ipsis diebus hostcm pcrsZqui. Cic. Proximo triennio 
o in a is gentes subegit. Nep. Vel pace vel bello durum fiiri licet. Sail. 
Ludis mune servum quidam eg$.rat, On the day of the games.... Liv. So 
J.uttnis, gludlutoribus, comitiis, denote the time of the Latin festivals, the 
gladiatorial shows, *icc. 

Remark 1. When a precise time is marked by its distance before or 
after another fixed time, it may be expressed by unte or post with either 
the accusative'or the ablative ; as, Aliquot ante annos. Suet. Pavcis ante 
diebus. Liv. Paucos post dies. Cic. Multis annis post Decemvlros. Id. 

Sometimes quam and a verb are added to post and ante with either the 
accusative or the ablative ; as, Ante paucos quam perlret menses. Suet. 
Paucis post diebus quam Lucd discesserat. Cic. Post is sometimes omitted 
before quam; as, Die vigeslmd quam credtus trat. Liv. 

Instead of postquam, ex quo or quum, or a relative agreeing with the pre- 
ceding ablative, may be used ; as, Octo diebus, quibus has Uterus dabam, 
Eight days from the date of these letters. Cic. Mors Ruscii, quatriduo 
quo is occlsus est, Chrysogono nuntidtur. Id. 

Rem. 2. Precise past time is often denoted by abhinc with the accusa- 
tive or ablative ; as, Qu&stor fuisti abhinc annos quatuordecim. Cic. Co- 
mitiis jam abhinc triginta diebus habltis. Id. 

Rem. 3. The time at which any thing is done, is sometimes expressed 
by the neuter accusative id, with a genitive ; as, Vcnit id temporis. Cic. 
So with a preposition ; Ad id diei. Gell. See § 212, Rem. 3. 

Rem. 4. The time at or xcithin which any thing is done, is sometimes 
expressed by in or de, with the ablative ; as, In his diebus. Plaut. In tali 
tempore. Liv. De tertid vigilia ad hostes contendit. Caes. Surgunt de 
nocte latrones. Hor. So with sub ; Sub ipsd die. Plin. 

The time within which any thing occurs, is also sometimes expressed 
by intra with the accusative ; a.s,Dimidiam partem natiomim subegit intra 
rriginti dies. Plaut. Intra declnium diem, quam Pheras venerat; Within 
ten days after.... Liv. 

For the ablative denoting duration of time, or extent of space, see § 2JG. 



ABLATIVE OF PLACE. 

§ 254. The name of a town in which any tiling is 
said to be, or to be done, if of the third declension or 
plural number, is put in the ablative without a preposi- 
tion; as, 

Alexander Babylone est mortuus, Alexander died at Babylon. Cic. 
Thebis nutrltus an Argis, Whether brought up at Thebes or at Argos. 
Hor. JWitusT'iburevcl Gabiis. Id. 

Remark ]. The ablative rure, or more commonly ruri. is used to de- 
note in the country ; as, Pater jilium ruri habitdre jussit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The preposition in is sometimes expressed with names of 
towns ; as, In Philippis quidam nuncidvit. Suet. 

Names of towns of the first and second declension, and singular num- 
ber, and also domus and humus, are in like manner sometimes put in the 
ablative. See § 221. 

Rem. 3. Before the names of countries and of all other places in which 
any thing is said to be or to be done, except those of towns, and domus 



§255,256. SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 219 

and rtWjthe preposition in is commonly used ; wa^Aio hocjiiri in Grocii. 

Phut. La rus in urbe fuit. Virg. 
Bnt the preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, MMtes statins caatris 
'. Sail. Jlf agnis in laudXbusfu.it totd Grsecia. Nep, Insidia terrt 

mm u/uc facta' sunt. Cic. A'lintu puppe salens. Ovid. Ibam forte via 

sacra, [[or. Qrbe to*4. Cic. 

For names of countries in the genitive, sec § 221, Rim. 1. 

^> 255. After verbs expressing or implying motion, 

the name of a town whence the motion proceeds, is put 

in the ablative, without a preposition ; as, 

Brand iaio profecti sumus, We departed from Brundisium. Cic. Interim 
Roma per littiras certior Jit ; sc. dalas or missas. Sail. J. 82. 

Remark 1. The ablatives domo, humo, and rure or ruri, are 
used, like names of towns, to denote the place whence motion 
proceeds; as, 

Domo profectus, Having set out from home. Nep. Surgit humo juvgnis, 
The youth rises from the ground. Ovid. Rure hue adverrit. Ter. Si ruri 
veniet. Id. Virgil uses domus with unde; as, Qui genus? unde domo? 
With an adjective, rure, and not ruri, must be used. 

Rem. 2. With names of towns, and domus, and humus, ab or ex is 
sometimes used ; as, Ab Alexandria profectus. Cic. Ex domo. Id. Ab 
humo. Virg. 

Rem. 3. With other names of places whence motion proceeds, ab or 
ex is commonly expressed ; as, Ex Asia transis in Europam. Curt. Ex 
castris projiciscuntur. Cags. 

Rut the preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, Litera, Macedonia alldtai. 
Liv. Classis Cypro advenit. Curt. Cessisscnt loco. Liv. Jtc eacris, 
proper ate sacris, laurumque capillis/zorc^e. Ovid. Finibus omncs prosiluCrc 
suis. Virg. Advolvunt ingentes montibus ornos. Id. This omission of 
the preposition is most common in the poets. 



ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 

*§> 25bt When two objects are compared by means of the compar- 
ative degree, a conjunction, as qtiam, atque, &c, is sometimes expressed, 
and sometimes omitted. 

The comparative degree is followed by the ablative, 
when qucun is omitted ; as, 

Nihil est virtute formosius, Nothing is more beautiful than virtue. Cic. 
Quis C. Lselio comior ? Who is more courteous than C. La;lius ? Id. 

Remark 1. An object which is compared with the subject 
of a proposition by menus of the comparative degree, is usually 
put in the ablative without quam ; as, 

Sidere pulchrior ille est. tu levior cortlce. Hor. Quid magis est durum 
aaxo, quid moJlius unda ? Ovid. Hoc nemo fuit minus ineptus. Ter. Air 
bdnum, Maecenas, sire Falemum te magis appositis delectat. Hor. 

Rem. 2. An object compared with a person or thing addressed, is also 
put in the ablative without quam; as, Ofons Bandusia splendidior vitro! 
Hor. 



220 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. § 256. 

Rem. 3. Quam is sometimes used when one of the objects compared 
is the subject of a proposition, and then both are in the same case, either 
nominative or accusative ; as, Oratio quam habitus fuit miscrabilior. Cic. 
Ajfirmo nullam esse laudem ampliorem quam earn. Id. 

Rem. 4. If neither of the objects compared is the subject of a sentence 
or a person addressed, quam is commonly used, and the object which fol- 
lows it is put in the nominative with sum, and sometimes in an oblique 
case to agree with the other object ; as, Non opxnor negatvrum 
esse te, homlni non gratiosiori. quam Cn. Calidius est, argentum reddidisse. 
Cic. Ego hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem. Ter. 

The following example illustrates both the preceding constructions : — 
Ut tibi multo majori, quam Africanus fuit, tamen (me) non multo minorem 
quam Loelium adjunctum esse patidre. Cic. 

Rem. 5. But when the former object of comparison is in the accusa- 
tive, though not the subject of the verb, the latter, if a relative pronoun, 
is put in the ablative without quam ; as, Attalo, quo graviorcm inimlcum 
non habui, sororem dedit ; He gave his sister to Attalus, than whom, &c. 
Curt. 

This construction is often found with other pronouns, and sometimes 
with a noun ; as, Hoc nihil gratius facere potes. Cic. Causam enim sus- 
cepisti antiquiorem memoria tud. Id. Exegi monumentum sere perennius. 
Hor. Majora viribus audes. Virg. Nullam sacrd vite prius severis arbo- 
rem. Hor. Nullos his mallem ludos spectdsse. Id. § 178,3. 

Rem. 6. Plus, minus, and amplius, are often used without 
quam, and yet are commonly followed by the same case as if it 
were expressed ; as, 

Hostium plus quinque millia ccesi eo die, More than five thousand of the 
enemy were slain that day. Liv. Ferre plus dimididti mensis cibaria. 
Cic. Non, amplius quingentos cives desiderdvit. Cass. Sedecim non am- 
plius legionibus defcnsum imperium est. Liv. Madefactum iri minus tri- 
ginta diebus Graociam sanguine. Cic. The ablatives in the last two exam- 
ples do not depend upon the comparatives, but may be referred to § 236. 

Before the dative and vocative, quam must be expressed after these 
words. 

The ablative is sometimes used with these as with other comparatives ; 
as, Dies triginta out plus eo in navi fui. Ter. Triennio amplius. Cic. 

Rem. 7. Quam is in like manner sometimes omitted, without a change 
of case, after major, minor, and some other comparatives ; as, Obsides ne 
minores octonum denum annorum neu majores quinum quadragenum,.... of 
not less than eighteen, nor more than forty-five years of age. Liv. Ex 
urbano exercitu, qui minores quinque et triginta annis erant, in naves impos- 
ed sunt. The genitive and ablative, in these and similar examples,are to be 
referred to § 211, Rem. 6. Longius ab urbe mille passuum. Liv. Annos 
natus magis quaalraginta. Cic. 

Rem. 8. When the second member of a comparison is an infinitive or 
clause, quam is always expressed ; as, Nihil est in dicendo majus quam ut 
faveat oratori auditor. Cic. 

Rem. 9. Certain nouns, participles, and adjectives, — as opinione, spe, 
expectatione, fide, — dicto, solito, — cequo, credibili, and justo, — are used in the 
ablative after comparatives; as, Opinione celerius venturus esse dicf.lur... 
sooner than is expected. Cass. Dicto citiiis tumlda aiquora placat. Virg. 
Injurias graviiis aequo habere. Sail. 

These ablatives supply the place of a clause : thus, graviiis aquo is 



<§> 256. SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 221 

equivalent to gravius quam quod cequum est. They are often omitted ; as, 
Liberties vivebut, sc. aequo. Nep. In such cases, the comparative may be 
translated by the positive degree, with too, quite, or rather, as in the above 
example — " He lived too freely," or " rather freely." So tristior, sc. solito, 
rather sad. 

Rem. 10. With inferior, the dative is sometimes used, instead of the 
ablative ; as, Vir nulld arte cuiquam inferior. Sail. The ablative is also 
found, but usually inferior is followed by quam. 

Rem. 11. Quam pro is used after comparatives, to express dispropor- 
tion ; as, Pr allium atrocius quam pro numero pugnantium, The battle was 
more severe than was to be expected, considering the number of the com- 
batants. Liv. 

Rem. 12. When two different qualities of the same object are compar- 
ed, both the adjectives which express them are put in the positive degree 
with magis quam, or in the comparative connected by qudm ; as, Perfec- 
tam artem juris civllis habebitis, magis magnam atque uberem, quam diffi- 
cllem atque obscuram. Cic. Triumphus clarior quam gratior, A triumph 
more famous than acceptable. Liv. 

Rem. 13. Magis is sometimes expressed with a comparative ; as, Quis 
magis queat esse beatior ? Virg. 

So also the prepositions prce, ante, prater, and supra, are sometimes used 
with a comparative ; as, Unus prae ceteris fortior exsurgit. Apul. Scelere 
ante alios immanior omnes. Virg. They also occur with a superlative ; 
as, Ante alios carissimus. Nep. Yet these prepositions denote comparison 
with a positive, and therefore seem redundant in such examples. See 
§127. 

Rem. 14. Alius may be construed like comparatives, and is sometimes, 
though rarely, followed by the ablative ; as, Neve putes alium sapiente 
bonbque bedtum. Hor. Alius Lysippo. Id. 

Rem. 15. Ac and atque are sometimes used after the comparative de- 
gree, like quam; as, Arctiiis atque hederd procera adstringltur ilex. Hor. 

Rem. 16. The degree of difference between objects com- 
pared is expressed by the ablative. 

(1.) Absolute difference is usually denoted by nouns; as, Minor una 
mense, Younger by one month. Hor. Sesquipede quam tu longior. Plaut. 
Hibernia dimidio minor quam Britannia. Cass. Dimidio mindris constdbit. 
Cic. Quam molestum. est uno digito plus habere /....to exceed by a finger, 
to have six fingers. Cic. Superat capite et cervicibus altis. Virg. 

(2.) Relative difference is denoted by neuter adjectives of quantity, and 
pronouns, in the singular number. Such are tanto, quanto, quo, eo, hoc, 
multo, parvo, paulo, nimio, aliquanto, altero tanto (twice as much) ; as, 
Quanto sumus superior es, tanto nos submissiiis gerdmus ; The more emi- 
nent we are, the more humbly let us conduct ourselves. Cic. Eo gravior 
est dolor, quo culpa est major. Cic. Quo difficilius, hoc praclarius. Id. 
Iter multo facilius. Cees. Parvo brevius. Plin. Eo magis. Cic. Eo 
minus. Id. Via altero tanto longior. Nep. Multo id maximum fuit. Liv. 
So, Multo praistat. Sail. Post paulo. Id. Multo ante lucis adventum. 
Id. Relative difference is also expressed by the phrase multis partlbus ; 
as, Numero multis partlbus esset inferior. Cses. 

Note. The accusatives tantum, quantum, and aliquantum, are some- 
times used instead of the corresponding ablatives ; as, Aliquantum est ad 
rem avidior. Ter. So the adverb longd ; as, Longh nobilissimus. Cees. 
19* 



222 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. $ 257. 



ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

§ 257. A noun and a participle are put in the abla- 
tive, called absolute, to denote the time, cause, or concom- 
itant of an action, or the condition on which it depends ; 

as, 

Pythagoras, Tarquinio Superbo regnante, in Italiam venit; Tarquinius 
Superbus reigning, Pythagoras came into Italy. Cic. Lupus, stimulante 
fame, captat ovile ; Hunger inciting, the wolf seeks the fold. Ovid. Hac 
oratione habita, concilium dimlsit. Cass. Galli, re cognita, obsidionem 
relinquunt. Id. Virtu te exeepta, nihil amicitid prastabilius jjutetis. Cic. 

Remark 1. This construction is an abridged form of expression, 
equivalent to a dependent clause introduced by cum, or some other con- 
junction. Thus, for Tarquinio regnante, the expression dum Tarquinius 
regndbat might be used ; for hac oratione habit A, cum. hanc orationem ha- 
buisset, or cum hac oratio habita esset, — concilium dimlsit. The ablative 
absolute may always be resolved into a proposition, by making the noun 
or pronoun the subject, and the participle the predicate. 

Rem. 2. This construction is common only with present and perfect 
participles. Instances of its use with participles in rus and dus are com- 
paratively rare ; as, Csesare venturo, Phosphor e, redde diem. Mart. Ir- 
rupturis tarn infestis nationibus. Liv. Quis est enim, qui, nullis officii 
proeceptis tradendis, philosophum se audeat dicer e. Cic. 

Rem. 3. A noun is put in the ablative absolute, only when 
it denotes a different person or thing from any in the leading 
clause. 

Yet a few examples occur of a deviation from this principle ; a substan- 
tive pronoun being sometimes put in the ablative absolute, though refer- 
ring to the subject, or some other word in the leading clause ; as, Se 
aucuente, scribit Thucydides. Cic. Legio ex castris Varronis, adstante ct 
inspectante ipso, signa sustulit. Cses. Me duce, ad hunc votijinem, me 
millte, veni. Ovid. Latos fecit, se console , fastos Lucan. 

Rem. 4. The ablative absolute serves to mark the time of an action, by 
reference to that of another action. If the present participle is used, the 
time of the action expressed by the principal verb, is the same as that of 
the participle. If the perfect is used, it denotes an action prior to that 
expressed by the principal verb. 

Thus in the preceding examples — Pythagoras, Tarquinio Superbo rcg- 
nante,in Italiam venit; Pythagoras came into Italy during the reign of 
Tarquinius Superbus. Galli, re cognltA, obsidionem relinquunt ; The 
Gauls, having learned the fact, abandon the siege. 

Rem. 5. The construction of the ablative absolute with the perfect 
passive participle, arises frequently from the want of a participle of that 
tense in the active voice. Thus, for " Caesar, having sent forward the 
cavalry, was following with all his forces," we find, " Ccesar, equitatu 
praimisso, subsequebdtur omnibus copiis." 

As the perfect participle in Latin may be used for both the perfect active 
and perfect passive participles in English, its meaning can, in many in- 
stances, be determined only by the connection, the agent with a or ab not 
being expressed after this participle, as it usually is after the passive voice. 



§ 258. SYNTAX. CONNECTION OF TENSES. 223 

Thus, Casar, his dictis, concilium dimlsit, might be rendered, " Caesar, 
having said this, or this having been said (by some other person), dismissed 
the assembly." 

As the perfect participles of deponent verbs correspond to perfect 
active participles in English, no such necessity exists for the use of the 
ablative absolute with them ; as, Casar, haec locutus, concilium dimlsit. 

In the following example, both constructions are united : Itdque agros 

Remorum depopulati, omnibus vicis, cedificiisque incensis. Caes. 

Rem. 6. The perfect participles of neuter deponent verbs, and some 
also of active deponents, which admit of both an active and passive sense, 
are used in the ablative absolute ; as, Ortd luce. Caes. Vel extincto vel 
elapso ammo, nullum residere sensum. Cic. Tarn multis gloriam ejus 
adeptis. Plin. Literas ad exercitus, tanquam adepto principatu, misit. Tac. 

Rem. 7. As the verb sum has no present participle, two 
nouns, or a noun and an adjective, which might be the subject 
and predicate of a dependent clause, are put in the ablative ab- 
solute without a participle ; as, 

Quid, adolescentulo duce, efficcre possent ; What they could do, a youth 
(being) their leader. Cses. Me suasore atque impulsore, hoc factum. 
Plaut. Annibdle vivo. Nep. Invltd Minervd. Hor. With names of office, 
the ablative absolute often denotes the time of an event ; as, Romam venit 
Mario consule, He came to Rome in the consulship of Marius. Cic. 

Rem. 8. A clause sometimes supplies the place of the noun ; as, JYon- 
dum comperto quam in regionem venisset rex. Liv. Audita venisse nun- 
cium. Tac. Vale dicto. Ovid. Haud cuiquam dubio quin hostium essent. 
Liv. Juxta periculoso vera an ficta promeret. Tac. 

Rem. 9. The noun is, in some instances, wanting ; as, In amnis trans- 
gressu, multiim certato, Bardesdnes vicit. Tac. Difficllis mihi ratio, cut, 
errato, nulla venia, recth facto, exigua laus propoiutur. Cic. Sereno per 
totum diem. Liv. ; or is used alone ; as, lmperio populi Romani. Caes. 

This use of certato and errato corresponds to the impersonal construc- 
tion of the passive voice of neuter verbs, while facto and sereno may be 
referred to some general word understood. 

Rem. 10. This ablative is sometimes connected to the preceding clause 
by a conjunction ; as, Casar, quanquam obsidione Massiliai retardante, 
brevi tamen omnia subegit. Suet. Decemviri non ante, quam perlatis legi- 
bus, deposituros imperium esse aiebant. Liv. 

Rem. 11. A predicate ablative is sometimes added to passive participles 
of naming, choosing, &c. § 210, (3.) ; as, Hasdrubdle imperatore suffecto. Liv. 



CONNECTION OF TENSES. 

§ 258. Tenses may be divided, in regard to their con- 
nection, into two classes. Those which belong to the same 
class are called similar; those which belong to different classes 
are called dissimilar. 

Of the first class are the present, the perfect definite, and the futures, 
with the periphrastic forms m sim and fuZrim. Of the second class are 
the imperfect, the perfect indefinite, and the pluperfect, with the periphrastic 
forms in essem and fuissem. 

I. Similar tenses only can, in general, be made to depend on 



224 SYNTAX. CONNECTION OF TENSES. § 258. 

each other, by means 'of those connectives which are followed 
by the subjunctive mood. 

1. In clauses thus connected, the present, perfect, and the 
periphrastic forms with sim and fuerim, may depend on, 

(1.) The Present; as, J\ "on sum ita hcbes, ut istuc dicam. Cic. Quan- 
tum dolorem acceperim, tu existimdre potes. Id. JVec dublto quin rcdltus 
ejus reipubllcce salutdris futurus sit. Id. 

(2.) The Perfect Definite ; as, Satis provisum est, ut ne quid agere 
possint. Id. Quis musicis, quis huic studio literdrum se dedidit, quin om- 
new, illdrum artium rim comprehenderit. Id. Dcfectiones solis prcedicts 
sunt, qua, quanta, quando futuros sint. Id. 

(3.) The Futures ; as, Sic faciilim&, quanta oratorum sit, semperque 
fuerit vaucitas, judieabit. Id. Ad quos dies rediturus sim, scribam ad te. 
Id. Si scieris aspldem latere uspiam, et velle allqucm super earn assidere, 
cujus mors tibi emolumentum factura sit, imprbbh feceris, nisi monueris, ne 
assideat. Id. 

2. So the imperfect, pluperfect, and periphrastic forms with 
essem a.ndfuissem, may depend on, 

(1.) The Imperfect; as, Unum Mud extimescebam, ne quid turpiter 
facerem, vet jam effecissem. Cic. JYon enim dubitabam, quin eas libentcr 
lecturus esses. Id. 

(2.) The Perfect Indefinite ; as, Veni in ejus villam ut libros inde 
promerem. Id. Hac cum essent nuntiata, Valeriis classem extemplo ad 
ostium flumlnis duxit. Liv. JVe Clodius quidem de insidiis cogitavit, 
siquidem exiturus ad c&dem e villd non fuisset. Cic. 

(3.) The Pluperfect ; as, Pavor ceperat milltes, ne mortifcrum esset 
vulnus. Liv. Ego ex ipso audieram, quam a te liberaliter esset tractatus. 
Cic. Non satis mihi constiterat, cum aliqudne anlmi mei molestid, an 
potiusIibenterteAthenis vistirus essem. Id. The perfect sometimes follows 
the pluperfect in clauses with ut containing a conclusion. Caes. B. G. 1, 11. 

Remark 1. When the present is used in narration for the perfect in- 
definite, it may, like the latter, be followed by the imperfect; as, Legdtos 
mittunt, ut pacem impetrarent. Cses. 

Rem. 2. The perfect definite is often followed by the imperfect, even 
when a present action or state is spoken of, if it is not confined to the 
present ; as, Sunt philosophi et fuerunt, qui omnino nullam habere cense- 
rent humandrum rerum procurationem JDeos. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The perfect indefinite is not regularly followed by the perfect 
subjunctive, as the latter is not, in general, used in reference to past action 
indefinite. See § 260, I. Rem. 1. 

These tenses are, however, sometimes used in connection, in the narra- 
tive of a past event, especially in Livy and Cornelius Nepos ; as, In 
JEquis varie bellatum est, adeo ut in incerto fuerit, zicissent, victine essent. 
Liv. Factum est, ut phis quam collcgai Miltiddes valuerit. l\ep. 

The imperfect and perfect are even found together after the perfect in- 
definite, when one action is represented as permanent or repeated, and 
the other simply as a fact ; as, Adeo nihil miseriti sunt, ut incursidnes fa- 
cerent et Veios in ammo habuerint oppugndre. Liv. 

Rem. 4. As present infinitives and present participles depend for their 
time upon the verbs with which they are connected, they are followed by 
such tenses as those verbs may require ; as, Apelles pictdres quoque eos 
peccare dicebat, qui non sentlrent, quid esset satis. Cic. Ad te scripsi, te 
levlter accusans in eo, quod de me cito credidisses. Id. 



$ 259. SYNTAX. INDICATIVE MOOD. 225 

Rem. 5. The perfect infinitive follows the general rule, and takes 
after it a tense of present or past time, according as it is used in a definite 
or indefinite sense ; as, Jlrbitramur nos ea prsstitisse, qua. ratio et doctrina 
praescripserit. Cic. Est quod gaudeas te in ista loca venisse, ubi aliquid 
sapere viderere. Id. 

But it may sometimes take a different tense, according to Rem. 2; as, 
Iia mild videor et esse Deos, et quotes essent satis ostendisse. Cic. 

II. Dissimilar tenses may be made dependent on each other, 
in order to express actions whose time is different. 

Hence, the present may be followed by the imperfect or pluperfect, to 
express a contingency dependent upon some condition not actually exist- 
ing ; as, Memo dubitdre debet, quia multos, si fieri posset, CtBsar ab inferis 
excitaret. Cic. So the perfect indefinite may be followed by the present, 
to express the present result of a past event ; as, Tanti sonitus fuerunt, ut 
ego brevior sim, quod eos usque istinc exaudltos putem. Cic. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

§ 259. The indicative mood is used in independent and 
absolute assertions. It is often employed, also, in conditional 
and dependent clauses, to denote that which is supposed or ad- 
mitted ; as, Si vales, bene est. Cic. It may likewise be used 
in interrogations ; as, Quid agis, ecquid commode vales 1 Plin. 

Remark 1. The several tenses have already been defined, and their 
usual significations have been given in the paradigms. They are, how- 
ever, sometimes otherwise rendered, one tense being used with the mean- 
ing of another, either in the same or in a different mood. Thus, 

(1.) The present is sometimes used for the future ; as, Quam mox nav- 
lgo Ephesum ? How soon do I sail for Ephesus ? Plaut. 

(2.) The perfect for the pluperfect ; as, Sed postquam aspexi, ilhco cog- 
novi, But after I (had) looked at it, I recognized it immediately. Ter. 

This is the usual construction after postquam, ubi, ut, ut primum, 
ut semel, quum primum, simul ac, and simul atque, in the sense of when, 
as soon as, in direct narration. So prius quam, Sail. Cat. 51. 

(3.) The pluperfect for the perfect ; as, Dixerat, et spissis noctis se con- 
didit umbris, She (had) said, and hid herself in the thick shades of night. 
Virg. ; so for the imperfect, to denote what had been and still was. 

(4.) The future for the imperative mood; as, Valebis, Farewell. Cic. 

(5.) The future perfect for the future ; as, Alio loco de oratorum amino 
et injuriis videro, I shall see (have seen).... Cic. This use seems to result 
from viewing a future action as if already completed. 

Rem. 2. When a future action is spoken of either m the future, or in 
the imperative, or the subjunctive used imperatively, and another future 
action is connected with it, the latter is expressed by the future tense, if 
the actions relate to the same time, but by the future perfect, if the one 
must be completed before the other is performed. This verb in English 
is usually put in the present tense ; as, Faciam &i potero; I will do it, if J 
can, i. e. if I shall be able. So, Ut sementem feceris, ita metes. Cic. 

Rem. 3. In expressions denoting the propriety, practicability or ad- 



226 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. $ 260. 

vantage of an action not performed, the indicative is used, while in 
English the potential, in such cases, is more common ; as, Possum perse- 
qui multa oblcctamenta rerum rusticdrum, sed &c, 1 might speak of the 
numerous pleasures of husbandry, but &c. Cic. iEquius huic Turnum 
fuerat se opponere morti. Virg. This construction occurs with debeo, 
possum, dccet, licet, oportet, necesse est ; cequum, consentaneum, longum, 
melius, optimum, par, satis, satins — est, erat, <fcc. ; and in the periphrastic 
conjugation with participles in das. 

Rem. 4. The past tenses of the indicative are often used for the im- 
perfect or pluperfect subjunctive^ in the conclusion of a conditional clause ; 
as, Si non alium longe jactdret odor em, laurus erat,. ...it would have been a 
laurel. Virg. Nee veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedissent. Id. Pons 
sublicius iter pane hoslibus dedit, ni unus virfuisset Horatius Codes. Liv. 
Si mens non lava fuisset, impulerat. Virg. So the present ind. for the 
present subj. ; as, Multa me dehortantur, &c. Sail. J. 31. Sometimes also in 
the condition ; as, At fuerat melius, si tepuerisle tenebat. Ovid. See § 261. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

§ 260. The subjunctive mood is used to express an action 
or state simply as conceived by the mind. 

It takes its name from its being commonly used in subjoined or depend- 
ent clauses. In some cases, however, it is found in independent clauses, 
or at least in such as have no obvious dependence. 

I. The subjunctive often implies the existence of an action 
or state, without directly asserting it. When this is the case, 
its tenses are commonly to be translated in the same manner as 
the corresponding tenses of the indicative ; as, 

Cum esset Casar in Gallid, When Caesar icas in Gaul, not might be. 
Cses. Rogas me quid tristis ego sim....why 1 am sad. Tac. 

Remark 1. In this sense, its tenses have, in general, the same limita- 
tion in respect to time as those of the indicative, but the imperfect is com- 
monly used rather than the perfect, to denote indefinite past action ; as, 
Quo factum est, ut brevi tempdre illustraretur ; By which it happened that, 
in a short time, he became famous. Nep. 

Rem. 2. The subjunctive, in such cases, depends upon the particles 
and other words to which it is subjoined, and its meaning must be care- 
fully distinguished from that which is stated in the following rule. 

II. The subjunctive is used to express what is contingent or 
hypothetical, including possibility , power, liberty, will, duty, 
and desire. In this use, it does not imply the existence of the 
action or state which the verb expresses. 

Remark 1. The tenses of the subjunctive, thus used, have the signifi- 
cations which have been given in the paradigms, and are, in general, not 
limited, in regard to time, like the corresponding tenses of the indicative. 
Thus, 

(1.) The present, in this sense, may refer either to present or future 
time ; as, Medio crlbus et quis ignoscas vitiis teneor ; 1 am subject to mode- 
rate faults, and such as you may excuse. Hor. Orat a Ccesdre ut det sibi 
veniam, He begs of Csesar that he would give him leave. Caes. 

(2.) The imperfect mav relate either to past, present, or future time ; as, 



§ 260. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 227 

Si fata fuissent ut caderem, If it had been my fate that I should fall. Virg. 
Si possmi, sanior essem ; If I could, 1 would be wiser. Ovid. Ceteros 
raperem et prosternerem, The rest I would seize and prostrate. Ter. 

(3.) The perfect relates either to past or future time ; as, Errarim for- 
tasse, Perhaps I may have erred. Plin. Videor sperdre posse, si te viderim, 
ea facile (me) transiturum.... if I can see you.... Cic. 

(4.) The pluperfect relates to past time, expressing a contingency, 
which is usually future with respect to some past time mentioned in con- 
nection with it ; as, Id respondcrunt se facturos esse, ciirn ille vento Aqui- 
lone venisset Lemnum.... when he should have come.... j\ep. 

Rem. 2. The imperfect subjunctive, in Latin, is sometimes employed, 
where, in English, the pluperfect would be used ; as, Quod si quis dexis di- 
ceret, nunquam putarem me in academid tanquam philosfiphum disputatu- 
rum, If any god had said. ...I never should have supposed.... Cic. 

On the other hand, the pluperfect in Latin is sometimes used, where the 
imperfect is commonly employed in English ; as, Promlsit se scripturum, 
quum primum nuntium accepisset.... as soon as he (should have) received 
the news. 

Rem. 3. The present and perfect subjunctive may denote a supposition 
or concession ; as, Vendat cedes vir bonus, Suppose an honest man is sell- 
ing a house. Cic. Dixerit Epicurus, Grant that Epicurus could have said. Id. 

Rem. 4. The present, imperfect, and perfect subjunctive are used to 
soften an assertion ; as, Nemo istud tibi concedat, or concesserit ; No one 
would grant you that. Volo and its compounds are often so used in the 
present ; as, Velim obmas mihi literas crebro mittas, I could wish that you 
would frequently send, &c. Cic. The perfect, used in this sense, has 
often the force of the present; as, Quis enim hoc tibi concesserit? Cic. 

Rem. 5. The present and perfect tenses are also used in questions 
which imply a doubt respecting the probability or propriety of an action ; 
as, Quis dubitet quin in virtute divitice sint? Who can doubt that riches 
consist in virtue ? Cic. Quisquam numen Junonis adoret praiterea? Will 
any one henceforth adore the divinity of Juno ? Virg. Quidni, inqait, 
meminerim? Cic. So, also, the imperfect. Ovid. Her. 12, 146. 

Rem. 6. The present subjunctive is often used to express a 
wish, an exhortation, a request, a command, or a permission ; 
as, 

Ne sim salvus, May I perish. Cic. In media arma ruamus, Let us rush.. . 
Virg. Ne me attingas, sceleste ; Do not touch me.... Ter. Faciat quod 
lubet, Let him do what he pleases. Id. The perfect is often so used, and 
sometimes the pluperfect ; as, Ipse viderit, Let him see to it himself Cic. 
Fuisset, Be it so, or It might have been so. Virg. Viderint sapientcs. 
Cic. 

Ne is commonly employed as a negative, rather than non, in this use 
of the subjunctive. 

Rem. 7. In the regular paradigms of the verb, no future subjunctive 
was exhibited either in the active or passive voice. 

(1.) When the expression of futurity is contained in another part of the 
sentence, the future of the subjunctive is supplied by some other tense of 
that mood ; as, Tantum moneo hoc tempus si amiseris, te esse nullum un- 
quam magis idoneum reperturum ; I only warn you, that, if you should 
lose this opportunity, you will never find one more convenient. Cic. 



228 SYNTAX. PROTASIS AND APODOSIS. §261. 

(2.) If no other future is contained in the sentence, the place of the 
future subjunctive active is supplied by the participle in rus, with sim or 
fverim, essem or fuissem ; as, Non dubltat quirt brevi Troja sit peritura, He 
does not doubt that Troy would soon be destroyed. Cic. See Periphrastic 
Conjugations, § 162, 14. 

(3.) The future subjunctive passive is supplied, not by the participle in 
dus, but by futurum sit or esset, with ut and the present or imperfect of 
the subjunctive ; as. JVon dubito quin futurum sit, ut laudUur ; I do not 
doubt that he will be praised. 

Rem. 8. The imperfect, when relating to past or present 
time, and also the pluperfect, both when they stand alone, and 
in conditional clauses with si, &c, as also after utinam and 
O! si, imply the non-existence of the action or state denoted 
by the verb; the present and perfect do not decide in regard to 
its existence ; as, 

Nollem datum esse, I could wish it had not been paid. Ter. Nolim 
datum esse, I hope it has not been paid. Utinam jam adesset, I wish he 
were now present. Cic. Utinam ea res ei voluptdti sit, I hope that thing 
is a pleasure to him. Id. 



PROTASIS AND APODOSIS. 

§ 261. In a sentence containing a condition and a con- 
clusion, the former is called the protasis, the latter the apodosis. 

1. In the protasis of conditional clauses with si and its com- 
pounds, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive imply the non- 
existence of the action or state supposed. In the apodosis the 
same tenses denote what the result would be, or would have 
been, had the supposition in the protasis been a valid one ; as, 

Nisi te satis incitdtum esse confiderem, scriberem plura; Did 1 not 
believe that you had been sufficiently incited, I would write more (Cic.) ; 
which implies that he does believe, and therefore will not write. Ea si de 
me uno cogitasset, nunquam illius lacrymis ac preclbus restitissem. Id. 

2. The present and perfect subjunctive are used in the 
protasis, when the action or state supposed may, or may not 
exist, or have existed ; as, 

Omnia brezia tolerahilia esse debent, etiamsi maxima sint, although 

they may be very great. Cic. Etsi id fugerit Isocrdtcs, at non Thucydi- 
des ; Although Isocrates may have avoided that Id. 

Remark 1. The tenses of the indicative may also be used in the 
protasis of a conditional sentence with si, &c. ; as, Si vales, bene est. Cic. 
Si quis antea mirabatur quid esset, ex hoc tempore miretur potius.... Id. 

Rem. 2. The subjunctive after si, &c, implies a greater degree of con- 
tingency than the indicative. When the imperfect or pluperfect is 
required to denote a past action, the indicative must be used, if its exist- 



§ 262. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 229 

ence is uncertain, as those tenses in the subjunctive would imply its non- 
existence. 

Rem. 3. The present and perfect subjunctive are sometimes used, both 
in the protasis and apodosis of a conditional: sentence, in the sense of the 
imperfect and pluperfect ; as, Tu, si hie sis, allter sentias ; If you were 
here, you would think otherwise. Ter. Quos, ni mea cura resistat, jam 
flamma tulerint. Virg. 

Rem. 4. The protasis of a conditional sentence is frequently not 
expressed, but implied ; as, Magno mercentur Mridce, i. e. si posshd. 
Virg. ; or is contained in an abl. absolute. Hor. Od. 4, 8, 5. 



SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

<§> 262. A clause denoting the purpose, object, or 
result of a preceding proposition, takes the subjunctive 
after ut, ne, quo, quin, and quominus ; as, 

Ea non, ut te instituerem, scrip si ; I did not write that in order to 
instruct you. Cic. Irritant ad pugnandum, quo fiant acriorcs ; The}' 
stimulate them to fight, that they may become fiercer. Varr. 

Remark 1. Ut, denoting a result, often relates to sic, ita, 
adeo, tam, talis, tantus, is ^jusmodi, &c, in the preceding clause; 
as, 

Id mihi sic erit gratum, ut gratius esse nihil possit ; That will be so 
agreeable to me, that nothing can be more so. Cic. Non sum ita hcbes, 
ut istuc dicam. Id. Neque tam erdmus amentes, ut explordta nobis esset 
victoria. Id. Tantum indulsit dolori, ut turn pietas vinceret. Nep. Ita 
and tam are sometimes omitted ; as, Epaminondas fuit dlsertus, ut nemo 
ei par esset. Id. 

Rem. 2. Ut, signifying altJwugh, takes the subjunctive ; 
as, 

Ut desint vires, tamen est lavdanda voluntas ; Though strength be 
wanting, yet the will is to be praised. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. Ut, with the subjunctive, is used with impersonal 
verbs signifying it happens, it remains, it follows, &c. ; as, 

Qui fit, ut nemo contentus vivat ? How does it happen that no one lives 
contented ? Hor. Hu/'c contTgit, ut patriam ex servitude in libertdtem vin- 
dicaret. Nep. Sequltur igltur, ut etiam vitia sint purca. Cic. Rellquum 
est, ut egomet mihi consulam. Nep. Restat igltur, ut motus astrorum sit 
voluntarius. Cic. Extremum Mud est, ut te orem ct obsecrem. Id. 

To this principle may be referred the following verbs and phrases : — 
fit, fieri non potest, accidit, incidit, occurrit, contingit, evenit, usu venit, 
rarum est, sequltur, futurum est, reliquum est, reiinquitur, restat, svperest, 
co/put est, extremum est, opus est, est, aiquum est, optimum est, esto, be it 
that. But see § 2G9, R. 2. 

For other uses of ut, with the subjunctive, see § 273. 

i Rem. 4. Ut is often omitted before the subjunctive, after 
verbs denoting willingness, unwillingness, or permission ; also 
after verbs of asking, advising, reminding, &c, and the im- 
peratives die and fac ; as, 

20 



230 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. *§> 263. 

Quid visfaciam ? What do you wish (that) I should do? Ter. Insdni 
feriant sine litdra flucius. Virg. Tentes dissimtddre rogat. Ovid. Id 
sinus oru. Id. 6'e siuuUrc, dixit, Pharnubazo id negotii daret. Nep. 
.-Jccedut oportet actio curia. Cic. Fac cogltes. Sail. 

Verbs of willingness, &c, are volo, nolo, malo, permitto, patior, sino, 

Vi to, itc. ; those of asking, &c, are rogo, oro, monco, jubeo, man- 

do. peto, {incur, censco, suadco, oportet, neccsse est, post iilo, hortor, curo,cxc. 

Rem. 5. .Ye (lest) expresses a purpose negatively ; as, 

Cuni ne quid ei desk, Take care that nothing be wanting to him. Cic. 
Ut ne are frequently used for ne ; as. Optra detur, utjudicia ne fiant. Id. 

Rem. 6. Ne is often omitted after cave ; as, 

Cave putcs, Take care that you do not suppose. Cic. 

Rem. 7. After mctuo, timeo, vereor, and other expressions 
denoting fear, or caution nc must be rendered by that ox lest, and 
ut by that not; as, 

Milo metuebat, ne a serris indicaretur, Milo feared that he should be be- 
trayed by his servants. Cic. Pavor erat, ne castra hostis aggrederetur. 
Liv. Ilia duo vereor, vXtibi possim concedere, 1 fear that I cannot grant.... 
Cic. 

Rem. 8. The proposition on which the subjunctive with ut and ne de- 
pends, is sometimes omitted ; as. Ut ita dicam. Cic. Ae singulos nomlncm 

Rem. 9. Quo (that, in order that), especially with a compar- 
ative ; nun qud, or nun quod (not that, not as if), followed by 
sed; and quominus (that not), after clauses denoting hindrance, 
take the subjunctive ; as, 

Adjiita me, quo id fiat facilius ; Aid me, that that maybe done more 
easily. Ter. Non quo repvblicd sit mild quicquam carius, sed desperdtis 
ctiam Hippocrates vetat adhibere mediclnam. Cic. Non quod sola ornent, 
sed quod excellant. Id. JS'eque recusaxit, quo minus legis pamam sublret. 
Nep. 

Rem. 10. Quin, after negative propositions and questions 
implying a negative, takes the subjunctive. Quin is used, 

1. For a relative with non, after nemo, nullus, nihil. ...est, repcrltur, 
invenltur,&LC. ; viz est, cegre reperltur, &c. ; as, Mcssdnam nemovenit, quin 
viderit. i. e. qui non vidi.rU; No one came to Messana who did not see. 
Cic. jXcgo ullam pictiirarn fuisse.... quin conquisierit, i. e. quam non, &c. 
Id. Nihil est, quin mall narrando possit depravdri. Ter. 

2. For at non. alter rum dubito, non est dubium, Jacere non possum, fieri 
nun potest; nihil, ha ad multuni, hand prucul, or minimum... ab est ; nihil 
pratirmitto, nun rccusu, tnnperdre mild nun possum, viz, cegre, &c. ; as, 

Fucere non possum quin ad te mittam, i. e. ut non, &.t Cic. Ego nihil 
pr&termlsi, quin Pompeium a Casaris conjunctions avocarem. Id. Pror- 
sus nihil alcsi quin shn miscrrlmus. Id. Quis igltur dubitct quin invir- 
tute dititia posltse sint ? Id. Ego viz tcneor quin accurram. Id. 

^ 263. I. The subjunctive is used after particles of wish- 
ing, as utinam, uti, () ! and O ! si; as, 

L'tinam minus viltE cujntli fuisscmus ! O that we had been less attached 



$ 263. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 231 

la life! Cic. OsiaolUa guiequam mrftMu adesset! Virg. The tense is 
determined by § 260, II. lu ,i. 8. 

k 2. Quamvis, however; licet, although; tanquam, quasi, ac 
si, tit si, velut si, vcliiti, s'uuti, ami ceu, as it"; modd, dum, and 
dummodo, provided, — take the subjunctive; as, 

Quamvis tile feliz sit, However happy lie may lie. Cic. Veritas licet 
nullum defensOrem obtineat, Though truth Bhould obtain no defender. I<l. 
Me omnibus rebus, juxta ac si metis /rater esset, sustentavit ; He supported 
me in every thing, just as though he were my brother. Id. Omnia honesta 
pint dummodo potentiam consequantur *; They disregard every lion- 
orable principle, provided they can obtain power." Id. Dam mihi (mi- 
ni um reddas. Hor. 

Quamvis (although) has commonly the subjunctive ; as, Quamvis non 
fueris suasor, appr.obdtor certi fuisti. Cic. Sometimes also the indicative ; 
as, Fellcem Nifiben, quamvis tot j antra vidit. Ovid. 

Qvanquam (although), denoting possibility, takes the subjunctive; as, 
Vi reg&re patriam quanquam possis. Sail. J. 3. Hor. Od. 4, 6, 7. 

3. After antequam and priusquam, the imperfect and pluper- 
fect tenses are usually in the subjunctive ; the present and per- 
fect may be either in the indicative or subjunctive ; but when 
one thing is declared to be necessary or proper to precede an- 
other, the subjunctive is used ; as, 

Ea causa, ante mortua est, quam tu natus esses, That cause was dead he- 
fore you were boi p.. Cic. Acertit rquos, priusquam pabuLa gustassent Trojte, 
Xanthumquc bibis. mt. Virg. Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est ; Be- 
fore you begin, there is need of counsel. Sail. 

4. Dum, donee, and quoad, signifying until, are followed by 
the subjunctive, if they refer to the attainment of an object; as, 

Dum hie venlret, locum relinquerc nohrit ; He was unwilling to leave 
the place until he (Milo) should come. Cic. Nihil puto tibi esse utilius, 
quoin operiri quoad scire possis, quid tibi agendum sit. Id. 

5. Qnum or cum, when it signifies a relation of time, 
takes the indicative ; when it denotes a connection oj 
thought, the subjunctive ; as, 

Cum est allatum ad nos, gratHter commotus sum ; When it was reported 
to us, I was greatly moved. Cic. Cum tot sustineas et tan/a negotia, pec- 
cem, si mover tua tempbra, Ccesar ; Since you are burdened with so many 
and so important affairs, I should do wrong, if I should occupy your time, 
Caesar. Hor. 

Remark 1. Cum, relating to time, is commonly translated token, or 
after ; referring to a train of thought, it signifies since, though or although, 
because; but may often be translated when; as, Quum in circulum venissct, 
When he had come into an assembly. 

Rem. 2. In narration, cum is usually joined with the imper- 
fect and pluperfect subjunctive, even when it relates to time ; 
as, 

Gracchus, cum rem illam in religionem populo venisse sentlret, ad sena- 
tum rctulit. Cic. Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, xix manus a se 
abstinuit. Id. 



232 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 

In most instances of this construction, the event denoted by the sub- 
junctive seems to relate to that expressed in the clause on which the 
subjunctive depends, not only in regard to tune, but also as, in some 
sense, a cause. In general, when the attention is directed chiefly to the 
time at which an action occurred, the indicative in any tense may be used; 
when to the action itself, the subjunctive ; as, Hoec cum scribebam jam turn 
cxistimdbam ad te orationem esse perldtam. Cic. Cum sciret Cludius iter 
necessarium Miloni esse Lanuvium, Roma sublto ipse jrrqfectus est. Id. 

For the subjunctive after si and its compounds, see § 261. 



SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 

<§> 264. 1. When the relative qui follows tarn, adeo, 
tantus, talis, — or is, tile, iste, or hie, in the sense of talis, 
— and is equivalent to ut with a personal or demonstrative 
pronoun j it takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Quis est tarn Lynceus qui in tantis tcnebris nihil ofFendat? i. e. ut in tan- 
tis....; Who is so quick-sighted, that he would not stumble in such dark- 
ness. Cic. Talem te esse oportet, qui ab impiorum civium societdte sejun- 
gas. Id. Meafuit legatio Octavii, in qua periculi suspicio non subesset, 
i. e. ut in ed. Id. Nee tamen ego sum ille ferreus, qui fratris carissimi 
mcerore non movear, i. e. ut ego non movear. Id. 

Sometimes the demonstrative word is only implied; as, 
Res parva dictu, sed quae studiis in magnum certdmen excesserit, i. e. 
talis ut....of such a kind that it issued in a violent contest. Cic. So quis 
sum, for num talis sum ; as, Quis sum, cujus aures lecdi ncfas sit ? Sen. 

2. When the relative is equivalent to quanquam is, etsi 
is, or dummodo is, it takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Laco,consilii quamvis egregii, quod non ipse afferrel.iuimxcus ; Laco,an 
opponent of any measure, however excellent, provided he did not himself 
propose it. Tac. Tu aquam a pumice postidas, qui ipsus sitiat. Plaut. 
jVihil molestum quod non desideres, i. e. dummodo id. Cic. 

3. Quod, in restrictive clauses, takes the subjunctive ; as, 
Quod sine molestid tud fiat, So far as it can be done without troubling 

you. Cic. Sestius non venerat quod sciam....so far as I know. Id. 

4. The relative, after the comparative followed by quam, 
takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Major sum-, quam cui possit fortuna nocere, i. e. quam ut mini, &c. ; I 
am too great for fortune to be able to injure me. Ovid. Jluditd voce pra- 
conis majus gaudium fuit, quam quod univcrsum homines caperent; Upon 
the herald's voice being heard, the joy was too great for the people to 
contain. Li v. 

5. A relative clause expressing a purpose, motive, or 
result, and equivalent to ut with a personal or a demon- 
strative pronoun, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Lacedcemonii legdtos Atlicnas miserunt, qui eum absentem accusarent; 



§ 264. SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 233 

The Lacedemonians sent ambassadors to Athens to accuse him in his ab- 
sence. Nep. Cccsar equitdturn omncm praimittit, qui videant, quas in par- 
tes iter faciant. Cses. Assidut repetunt, quas perdant, Belides undas. Ov. 
So with relative adverbs; as, Lampsdctim ei (Themistocli) rex dondrat, 
unde vinum sumeret, i. e. ex qud or ut inde, &c. Nep. 

6. A relative clause after certain indefinite general ex- 
pressions, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Fuerunt ed iempestate, qui dicerent ; There were some at that time who 
said. Sail. Erant, quibus appetentior fames videretur ; There were those to 
whom he appeared too desirous of fame. Tac. Erunt, qui exist imdri velint. 
Cic. Si quis erit, qui perpetuam orationem desideret, alter A actione axidiet. 
Id. Venient legidnes, quae neque me inultum, neque te impunltum patian- 
tur. Tac. So after est, in the sense of " there is reason why ; " as, Est 
quod gaudeas, You have cause to rejoice. Plaut. Est quod visam domum. 
Id. Si est quod desit, ne bedtus quidem est. Cic. 

The expressions included in the rule are est, sunt, adest, prcesto sunt, 
existunt, exoriuntur, inveniuntur , reperiuntur, si quis est, tempus fuit, tem- 
pus veniet, &c. 

The same construction occurs with relative particles used indefinitely ; 
as, Est unde hcec fiant, There are resources whence this may be done. 
Ter. Est ubi id isto mudo valeat. Cic. 

The above and similar expressions are followed by the subjunctive only 
when they are indefinite. Hence, after sunt quidam, sunt nonnulli, sunt 
multi, <fcc, when referring to definite persons, the relative takes the in- 
dicative 5 as, Sunt orationes qucedam, quas Mcnocrito dabo. Cic. 

The indicative is sometimes, though rarely, used after sunt qui, even 
when taken indefinitely, especially in the poets; as, Sunt, quos juvat. Hor. 

7. A relative clause after a general negative, or an in- 
terrogative expression implying a negative, takes the sub- 
junctive ; as, 

Nemo est, qui haud intelligat; There is no one who does not understand. 
Cic. Nulla res est, qua? p erf err e possit continuum labor em ; There is nothing 
which can endure perpetual labor. Quinct. Nulla pars est corporis, quos 
won sit minor. Id. Nihil est, quod nan alicubi esse cogatur. Id. hi foro 
vix decimus quisque est, qui ipsus sesc noscat. Plaut. Quis est, qui ulilia 
fugiat ? Who is there that shuns what is useful ? Cic. An est quisquam, 
qui hoc ignoret ? Is there any one who is ignorant of this ? Id. Numquid 
est mali, quod non dixeris ? Ter. 

General negatives are nemo, nullus, nihil, unus non, alius non, non 
quisquam, vix ullus, nee ullus, &c, with est ; vix with an ordinal and 
quisque ; nego esse quenquam, &,c. Interrogative expressions implying a 
negative, are quis, quantus, uter, ecquis, numquis, an quisquam, an aliqais, 
quotas quisque, quotus, &c, with est ; quot, quam multi, &c, with sunt. 
1. The*same construction is used after non est, nihil est, quid est, numquid 
est, &c, followed by quod, cur, or quare, and denoting " there is no reason 
why," " what cause ? " " is there any reason ? " as, Quod timeas, non est ; 
There is no reason why you should fear. Ovid. Nihil est, quod adventum 
nostrum pertimescas. Cic. Quid est, quod de ejus civitdte dubites ? Id. 
Quid est, cur virtus ipsa per se non efficiat bedtos ? Id. 

So after non habeo, or nihil habeo ; as, Non habeo, quod te accusem. Cic. 
Nihil habeo, qu®d scribam. Id. 

Note. The relative clause takes the subjunctive after the expressions 
20* 



234 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. <§> 264. 

included in this and the last rule, only when it expresses what is intended 
to be affirmed of the subject of the antecedent clause ; as, Nemo est, qui 
nesciat ; There is no one who is ignorant, i. e. no one is ignorant. Cic. 
So Sunt, qui hoc carpant; There are some who blame this, i. e. some blame 
this. Veil. 

If the relative clause is to be construed as apart of the logical subject, it 
does not require the subjunctive ; as, Nihil stabile est, quod infidum est; 
Nothing which is faithless is firm. Cic. 

8. A relative clause expressing the reason of what goes 
before, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Peccavisse mihi videor, qui a te discesserim ; I think I have erred in 
having left you. Cic. Inertiam accusas adolescentium, qui istam artem 
non ediscant ; You blame the idleness of the young men, because they do 
not learn that art thoroughly. Id. fortunate adolescens, qui tuce virtutis 
Homerum prceconem inveneris ! Id. 

Sometimes, instead of qui alone, ut, quippe, or utpote — qui, 
is used, generally with the subjunctive; as, 

Convivia cum patre non inlbat, quippe qui ne in oppldum quidem nisi 
rard venisset. Cic. Neque Antonius procul aberat, utpote qui magno 
exercitu sequeretur. Sail. Quippe qui omnia vicerat, Sail. 

9. After dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus, a relative 
clause takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Videtur, qui aliquando imperet, dignus esse; He seems to be worthy at 
some time to command. Cic. Pompeius idoneus non est, qui impetret. Id. 
Et rem idoneam, de qua quaeratur, et homines dignos, quibuscwra disseratur, 
putant. Id. 

Note. If the relative clause does not express that of which the person 
or thing denoted by the antecedent is worthy, its construction is not 
influenced by this rule. Thus, Quis servus libertate dignus fuit, cui 
nostra salus cara non esset ? The subjunctive is here used according to 
No. 7 of this section. 

10. A relative clause, after unus and solus, restricting 
the affirmation to a particular subject, takes the subjunc- 
tive ; as, 

H(Ec est una contentio, quae adhuc permanserit ; Tliis is the only dispute 
which has remained till this time. Cic. Voluptas est sola, quae nos vocet 
ad se, et alliceat sudpte naturd ; Pleasure is the only thing that, by its own 
nature, invites and allures us to itself. Id. 

11. When the relative refers to a dependent clause, it often 
takes the subjunctive. See § 266. 

12. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in 
narration after relative pronouns and adverbs, when a repeated 
action is spoken of; as, 

Semper habiti sunt fortisslmi, qui summam imperii potirentur ; Those 
have always been considered the bravest, who obtained the supreme do- 
minion. Nep. Ut quisque maxlmh laboraret locus, out ipse occurrehat, aul 
allquos mittebat. So after si quis or qui ; as, Si qui rem malitiosius gessis- 
set, dedecus existimabant. Cic. 



§ 266. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. £35 



SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 

<§> 265. Dependent clauses, containing an indirect 
question, take the subjunctive. 

A question is indirect when its substance is stated without the inter- 
rogative form ; as, 

Qualis sit animus, ipse animus nescit; The mind itself knows not what 
the mind is. Cic. Credibile non est, quantum scribam ; It is incredible how 
much I write. Id. Quis ego sim, me rogltas? Do you ask me who I am? 
Plaut. Nee quid scribam, habeo; Nor have I any thing to write. Id. 
Doce me, ubi sint dii ; Inform me where the gods are. Id. Quam pridem 
sibi hereditas venisset, docet. Id. Nunc accipe, quare desipiant omnes. Hor. 
Id xxfahrailli sentiant, an veru simulent, tu intcUiges. Cic. Qucei-o, num tu 
senatui causam tuam permittas. Id. Vides, ut aitd stet nive candid am 
Soracte. Hor. Nescit, vitdne fruatur, an sit apud manes. Ovid. 

All interrogatives may be thus used iu indirect questions ; as, 

Quuntus, qzialis, quot, quotus, qvotuplex, liter ; quis, qui, cujas ; ubi. quo, 
wide, qua, quorsuvi, quamdiu, quamdudum, quamprldem, quoties, cur, quure, 
quamobrem, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, quam, quantopere, an, nc, num, 
utriiin, anne, annon. 

Remark 1. The indicative is sometimes used in such constructions ; 
as, Vide avaritia quid facit. Ter. So Virg. Eel. 5, 7. 

Rem. 2. In double questions, the first may be introduced byutrum, num, 
or the enclitic ne ; and, in such case, the second is usually introduced by 
an; as, Multum interest, utrum laus imminuatur, an salus deseratur. Cic. 
The first question is sometimes without any interrogative particle, and the 
second is then introduced by an or ne ; as, Nunc hiibeam Jitium, necne, 
incertum est. Ter. 

Rem. 3. Dubito an, haud scio an, nescio an, though implying some 
doubt, have generally a sense almost affirmative ; as, Dubito, an hunc pri- 
mum omnium ponam ; I am inclined to place him first of all. Nep. 

Rem. 4. Nescio quis, used nearly in the sense of aJlquis, does not influ- 
ence the mood of the following verb ; as, Lucus, nescio quo casu, nocturno 
tempore, incensus est. Nep. 

SUBJUNCTIVE IN INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 

<§. 2(y&. 1. When a proposition containing either an 
accusative with the infinitive, or a verb in the subjunc- 
tive, has a clause connected with it, as an essential part, 
either by a relative, a relative adverb, or a conjunction, the 
verb of the latter clause is put in the subjunctive ; as, 

Quid enim potest esse tarn perspicuum, quam esse aliquod numen, quo 
Itaic reganfur ? For what can be so clear ns that there is some divinity by 
whom these things are governed ? Cic. Itlud sic fere definiri solct, deco- 
rum id esse, quod consentancum sit hominis excellentue. Id. Audiam quid 
sit, quod Epiciirum non probes; I shall hear why it is that you do not 
approve of Epicurus. Id. Jusslt at, qua venissent, naves Eubceam petcrent. 
Liv. 



236 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 

A clause, thus connected to a preceding dependent proposition, is some- 
times called an intermediate clause. 

To this rule belongs the construction of the oratio obliqua, or indirect 
discourse, that is, the relating the words or sentiments of another, not in 
the exact form in which they were expressed or conceived, but in that of 
narration. Thus, Caesar said, " I came, I saw, I conquered," is direct, — 
Caesar said, that he came, saw, and conquered, is indirect discourse. 

2. In the oratio obliqua, the main proposition is ex- 
pressed by the accusative with the infinitive ; and depend- 
ent clauses connected with it by relatives and particles, 
take the subjunctive. 

Thus, Cicero and Quinctilian, in quoting the language of Marcus An- 
tonius, make use, the former of the oratio directa, the latter of the oratio 
obliqua ; — Antonius inquit, " Ars edrum rerum est, quae sciuntur ; " Antoni- 
us says, " Art belongs to those things which are known." Cic. Antonius 
inquit, artem edrum rerum esse, quae sciantur ; Antonius says, that art 
belongs to those things which are known. Quinct. 

So, Socrates dicere solebat, omnes, in co quod scirent, satis esse eloquentes; 
Socrates was accustomed to say, that all are sufficiently eloquent in that 
which they understand. Cic. Cato mirdri se aicbat, quod non rideret 
aruspex, aruspicem cum vidisset. Id. Negat jus esse, qui miles non sit, 
pvgndre cum hoste. Id. Indignabantur ibi esse imperium, ubi non esset 
libertas. Liv. Itdque Athenienses, quod honestum non esset, id ne utile qui- 
dem (esse) putaverunt. Cic. 

Remark 1. When the subjunctive would be necessary in the oratio 
directa, to denote liberty, power, &c, the same remains in the oratio obli- 
qua, and is not changed into the infinitive with an accusative ; as, Ad liac 
Ariovistus respondit, quum vellet, congrederetur ; To this Ariovistus replied, 
that he might meet him when he pleased. Cnes. In the oratio directa, this 
would be congredidris. The imperative in the oratio directa is, in the 
oratio obliqua, changed into the subjunctive. Id. See § 273, 3. 

Rem. 2. A writer may state his own past words or thoughts in oratio 
obliqua, either preserving the first person, or adopting the third. 

Rem. 3. When the words or sentiments of a third person are stated in 
oratio obliqua, sui and suus are commonly used in references made to him. 
See § 208, (1.) 

Rem. 4. The tenses to be used in changing the oratio directa into the 
obliqua, depend on the tense of the verb which introduces the quotation, 
according to the rule, § 258. But when the future perfect would be used 
in the direct, the pluperfect is necessary in the oblique form ; but the per- 
fect is used after the present, perfect definite, or future. 

Rem. 5. When the connected clause contains merely a descriptive 
circumstance, or expresses what is independent of the sentiment of the 
preceding clause, it takes the indicative ; as, Imperdvit Alexander Lysippo, 
ut edrum. equltum, qui apud Gramcum ceciderant, jfccerei statuas ; Alexan- 
der ordered Lysippus to make statues of those horsemen who had fallen 
at the Granicus. Sometimes, in other cases, when it is evident from the 
sense, that the connected clause is an essential part of the proposition, the 
indicative is used, to avoid giving the appearance of contingency to the 
sentence. 

3. A clause connected to another by a relative or causal 
conjunction, takes the subjunctive, (whatever be the mood 



§ 267, 268. syntax — imperative mood. 237 

of the preceding verb,) when it contains not the senti- 
ment or allegation of the writer, but that of some other 
person alluded to ; as, 

Socrates accusdtus est, quod corrumperet juventutem ; Socrates was ac- 
cused, because (as was alleged) he corrupted the youth. Deum invocd- 
bant, cujus ad solenne venissent ; They invoked the god, to whose solem- 
nities they had come. Liv. Here the charge of corrupting the youth is 
not made by the writer, but by the accusers of Socrates. So, in the second 
example, the worshippers allege that they have come to attend upon the 
solemnities of the god. The indicative, in such cases, would render the 
writer responsible for the truth of the allegation. 

In the preceding cases, it is not directly said that the sentiments are 
those of another than the writer. In Cicero, however, the words dico, 
pulo, arbitror, and the like, are often construed in a similar manner ; as, 
Quum enim, Hannibdlis permissu, exisset de castris, rediit paulo post, qudd 

se oblitum ncscio quod diceret, because (as) he said, he had forgotten 

something. Cic. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

$ 287. The imperative mood is used, in the second person, 
to express a command, an exhortation, or an entreaty ; as, 

JYosce te, Know thyself. Cic. JEquam memento servdre mentem, Re- 
member to preserve an unruffled mind. Hor. Hue ades, Come hither. 
Virg. Pasce capellas, el potum pastas age, et inter agendum occur sdre 
capro cave to. Id. 

The plural form in tote is rare ; as, Facitdte. Ovid. Petitdte. Id. 

The third person expresses only a command, and is chiefly 
used in enacting laws ; as, 

Virgines vestdles in urbe custodiunto ignem foci publici sempiternum. 
Cic. 

Remark 1. With the imperative, not is expressed by ne, 

and nor by neve ; as, 

Ne tanta animis assuescite bella. Virg. Ne crede coldri. Id. Honilnem 
mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urlto. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The present and perfect subjunctive are often used instead of 
the imperative, to express a command in a milder form, an exhortation, or 
an entreaty. See § 260, II., Rem. 6. Sometimes also the future indica- 
tive. See § 259, Rem. 1, (4.) 

Rem. 3, Sometimes, for the simple imperative, far. with the subjunc- 
tive is used ; as, Fac erudias, Instruct, or Take care to instruct. Cic. So 
noli with the infinitive, and cave with the subjunctive, with or without, 
ne ; as, Noli pvtare, Do not siippose. Cic. Cave ezistimes, Do not think. 
Id. — Non and neque occur, though rarely, with the imperative. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
OF THE TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 
<§> 268. The tenses of the infinitive denote respectively an 
action as present, past, or future, in reference to the time of 
the verbs with which they are connected ; as, 



238 SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. § 2C8. 

Hoc face re possum, I am able to do this. Cic. Vidi nostros inimlcos 
cupSre helium, I saw that our enemies were desiring w;ir. Id. JV< c 

I turtur ab idmo, Nor shall the turtle dove cease to coo 
from the Lofty elm. Virg. Victorem victai succubuisse queror, I com- 
plain that the victor has yielded to the vanquish) d. Ovid. Se a senibus 
audfsse dicebant, The)'- said that they had heard (it) from the old men. Cic. 
Audiet elves acuisso f err inn juventus, The youth will hear that the citizens 

have whetted the sword. Hor. Negat sese verbum esse facturum. He 

declares that he is not about to speak. Cic. Postquam audierat won datum 
\r\Jilio vxorevi suo, After he had heard that a wire would not be given to 
his son. Ter. Semper existimabltis nihil horum cos visuros fore, You will 
always suppose that you are to see none of these things. Cic. 

Remark 1. The present infinitive is sometimes used to denote a com- 
pleted action. This is the usual construction with memini; but the 
expression denotes rather a recollection of the progress than of the com- 
pletion of the action; as, Hoc vie memini dicere, 1 remember my saying 
this. Cic. Teucrvm memini Sidona venire. I remember Teucer's coming 
to Sidon. Virg. So with manor/:} teneo. Cic. Phil. 8, 10. 

So, also, with recorder; — Recorder longc omnibus unum anteferre De- 
mosthSnem. Cic. So'Jtf. Maximum accepimus facile celare. Id. 

When the action is spoken of simply as a fact, the perfect infinitive is 
used with memini ; as, Meministi me ita distribuisse causam. Cic. 

Rem. 2. To express the result of an action, the perfect infinitive is 
sometimes used instead of the present, especially after satis habeo, &c, or 
rolo ; as, quum illam nemo relit attigisse. Plin. The poets use the infini- 
tive perfect when we should expect a present ; as, Tendentes Pelion impos- 
iiisse Olijmpo. Hor. 

Rem. 3. The present is also sometimes used for the future, especially 
when the verb has no future ; as, Desine fata ileum flecti sperare, Cease 
to hope that the fates of the gods will be changed. Virg. Progeniem 
Ttojano a sanguine duci audierat. Id. Cms mihi argentum dare dixit, i. e. 
se daturum esse. Ter. Cato affirmat se vivo iUurn nan tiiumphare. Cic. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the future infinitive, in both voices, fat Drum esse or 
fore, followed by vt and the subjunctive, is often used ; the present and 
imperfect subjunctive, in such cases, denoting an unfinished, the perfect 
and pluperfect a finished, future action; as, Nunquam putdvi fore, ut sup- 
plex ad tevenlrem; I never supposed (that it would happen) that I should 
come a suppliant to you. Cic. Susplcor fore, ut intringatur honnnum 
improbitas. Id. Credebam fore, ut epistolam scripsisses. 

This construction is necessarily used, when the verb has either no future 
active participle, or no supine ; as, in such case, the regular future infini- 
tive cannot be formed ; as, Spero fore ut sapias. 

The perfect participle with fore is also used to denote a future action in 
the passive voice ; as, Quod videret nomine pads bellum involutum fore. 
Cic. Quos spero brevi tempore tecum copulatos fore. Id. 

Rem. ;"). The periphrastic infinitive formed by the future active parti- 
ciple with fuisse, denotes a future action contingent upon a condition 
which w r as not fulfilled ; and. in the upodosis of a conditional sentence, 
corresponds to the pluperfect subjunctive ; as, An censes me tantos labor es 
Buscepturum fuisse, si iisdem finlbus gloriam meam quibus vitam essem 
terminaturusl Do you think that 1 should have undertaken so «reat labors 
if, k!vc. Cic. Ut perspicuum sit omnibus, nisi tarda acerbitas injurim fuisset, 
nunquam illos in eum locum progressuros fuisse,.... that they never would 
have come into that place. Id. 

Futurum fuisse, also, with ut and the subjunctive, is used in this sense * 



<§ 269, 270. SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 'J.'j'.l 

as, Nisi mtncii csscvt aUcUi f existimdbant plerlque futflram fuisse, at om \- 

dum caperetur, that the town would have been taken. Ca's. Tins form 

is necessary in the passive voice. 

Ui:m. 6. The perfect infinitive, like the past tenses of tHe indicative, 
sometimes corresponds to the pluperfect subjunctive in the apodosis of a 

conditional clause ; as, (Dirit) sibi vitaai jilitr sad anion in fuisse, n libirce 
ac padiae metre licltttiii fuissct / (He said) that the life of Ins daughter 
had been dearer to him than his own, if it had been permitted.... Liv. 

This use of the perfect infinitive is necessary when the verb has no 
future participle; as, $i tenuisset Stcsichtirus madam, vidttur proxlmu* 
icmtdari Homirum potuisse ; He seems to have been able, i. e. it seems 
that he would have been able, to rival Homer, if, Ac. Quint. 

*§> £b*J. The infinitive mood, in Latin, is often used, not indefinite- 
ly, but with a subject of its own in the accusative case. See § 239. 

The infinitive passive of a neuter verb, like the third person singular of 
that voice, is sometimes used without a subject; as. Vides tuto properari 

liiorc. You see that haste is made Virg. See §§ 209, Rem. 3, (2), and 

239, Rem. 3. 

The present infinitive lias sometimes, in narration, a subject in the 
nominative. See § 209, Rem. 5. 

THE INFINITIVE AS THE SUBJECT OF A VERB. 

The infinitive, either with or without a subject-accusa- 
tive, may be the subject of a verb ; as, 

Ad Tcmpubhcam pcriinct me conservari, It concerns the state that I 
should be preserved. Cic. Aunqnam est utile peccare, To do wrong is 
never useful. Id. JEquum est, pecedtis veniavx poscentem reddere rursus. 
Hor. See § 201, IV. 

Remark 1. In such constructions, when no subject is ex- 
pressed before the infinitive, an indefinite word for person or 
thing, or a reflexive pronoun, is commonly implied. 

Tims, in the last two examples, as the propositions are true in their 
widest application to moral beings, aliqucm may be understood before 
peccare and rcddCrc. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive is often the subject of a proposition when the 
substantive verb with an adjective forms the predicate, and also when the 
verb in the sentence is impersonal, or is used impersonally, either in 
the active or passive voice ; as, Cui verba dare difficile est. Ter. Menda- 
cem viemorcm esse oportet. Quint. JYeque est tc fallere cuiquam, sc. pote. 
Virg. Jfon cnim vie boc jam dicSre pudebit. Cic. See § 2!)'.), Rem. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive may itself be the subject of an infinitive ; as, 
Audio von liccre cuiquam in nave capillos deponere. Ter. 

THE INFINITIVE AS THE OBJECT OF A VERB. 

§ 270. The infinitive, either with or without a sub- 
ject accusative, may be the object of a verb ; as, 

Haic vitare caplmas, We desire to avoid this. Cic. Poetas omnxno von 
conor attingere, 1 do not attempt to read the poets at all. Id. Sententiam 
valere cupicrunt, They desired that the opinion should prevail. Id. Spare 
tc valere, I hope that you are well. Id. 

Remark 1. The infinitive alone may also depend upon an 
adjective, and sometimes upon a noun ; as, 



240 SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. § 271. 

Dignus amari, Worthy to be loved. Virg. Audax omnia perpeti, Res- 
olute to endure every thing. Hor. Sollers ornare, Skilful to adorn. Ovid. 
Segnes solvere nodum. Hor. Indocilis pauperiem pati. Id. Lenis reclu- 
dere. Id. See § 213, Rem. 4, (1.) Tempus est hujus libri facere finem, 
It is time to finish this book. Nep. Iniit consilia reges tollere, He devised 
a plan to destroy the kings. Id. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive with the accusative sometimes stands uncon- 
nected, especially in vehement interrogations or exclamations, where 
credibile est ? or verumne est ? may be supplied ; as, Mene incepto desistere 
victamf That I, vanquished, should desist from my undertaking? Virg. 
Me miserum! te in tantas ccrumnas propter me incidisse ! Cic. 

So, in the oratio obliqua, the words signifying said, saying, &c, are 
often omitted, or implied in a preceding verb or phrase ; as, Idfacilt effici 
posse, sc. dixit. Nep. Quern signum daturum fugientlbus ? Curt. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive is sometimes to be supplied ; and esse and fuisse 
with a predicate adjective, and also in the compound forms of the infinitive, 
are commonly omitted, especially after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, 
and perceiving ; as, Vos cognovi fortes. Sail. Quern pulsummemoravi. Tac. 

THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT- 
ACCUSATIVE. 

y *71. The infinitive, without a subject-accusative, is used after 
verbs denoting desire, ability, intention or endeavor ; after verbs signifying 
to begin, continue, cease, or abstain, to dare, fear or hesitate, to be wont ; and 
after the passive of verbs of saying, believing, reckoning, &c. ; as, 

Cupio, opto, volo, nolo, malo, studeo ; possum, queo, nequeo, valeo, scio, 
nescio ; euro, cogito, deccrno, statuo, constituo, instituo, conjv.ro, paro ; 
conor, nitor, tendo, contendo, tento, maturo, aggredior, persevlro ; — cozpi, 
incipio, per go, desino, desisto, intermitto, praitermitto, parco, recuso ; soleo, 
assuesco, consuesco, insuesco ; audeo, vereor, metuo, reformido, timeo, pa- 
veo, dubito ; so disco, debco ; — audior, crcdor, existimor ,feror , negor, nuntior, 
perhibeor, putor, trader, jubeor, videor, and cogor. 

The poets, in imitation of the Greeks, use the infinitive after fuge, aufer, 
cave, parce, memento ; horreo, refugio, obliviscor, qua.ro, urgeo, laboro, amo, 
gaudeo, furo, calleo, sumo, mitto, remitto, potior, juro, pugno, natus, and 
some other verbs, especially to denote a wish or purpose. In this con- 
struction, the poets are sometimes imitated by the later prose writers ; as, 
latroiit videre. Ter. JYon te f rang ere persequor. Hor. Non populdre 
pendtes venimus. Virg. 

Remark 1. Many of the verbs above enumerated, instead of the infin- 
itive, may be followed by the subjunctive with a conjunction ; and with 
some of them, this is the regular construction; as, Sententiam ne diceret, 
rccusdvit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The passives in the above list may either be used personally, 
with the infinitive alone, or impersonally, followed by the accusative with 
the infinitive. The former construction is more common, especially with 
videor. Thus we may say, Mater Pausaniai co tempore vixisse dicitur, or 
Dicitur eo tempore matron Pausaniai vixisse ; The mother of Pausanias is 

said to have been living or, It is said that the mother of Pausanias was 

living Nep. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive without a subject is used after a verb, only when 
it denotes an action or state of the subject of that verb. 

Sometimes, when the subject remains the same, the infinitive takes a 
rellcxive pronoun as its subject, especially after cupio, volo, nolo, malo, 
conor, and studeo ; as, Cupio me esse clcmentem. Cic. Omnis homines, 
qui sese student prtestare ceteris animalibus. Sail. 



<§> 272, 273. syntax. — infinitive mood. 241 

THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUB JE CT- ACCUSATIVE. 

<§> 272. The infinitive with a subject-accusative follows 
verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and the like ; as, 

Videbat, id non posse fieri ; He saw that that could not be done. Nep. 
Credunt se negligi^They believe themselves to be neglected. Ter. Me in 
ejus potcstdte dixi fore. Id. Affirmant militumjace re animus. Li v. S&pe 
venit ad aures incas, tc istud nimis crebro dicere. Cic. Earn pugnam ad 
Pcrusiam pugndtam (esse), quidam auctores sunt. Li v. 

Note. This rule includes all such verbs and phrases as denote the 
exercise of the external senses and intellectual faculties, or the communi- 
cation of thought to others ; but with most of these a different construc- 
tion often occurs. See § 273. 

Remark 1. When ambiguity would arise from the subject and the 
object of the verb being both in the accusative, the passive infinitive is 
substituted for the active, by which means the subject is put in the abla- 
tive, or in the accusative with per; as, jYe fando quidem auditum est, cro- 
codilum violdtum esse ab iEgyptio ; instead of iEgyptium crocodilum vio- 
Idsse. Cic. 

Rem. 2. After verbs of saying, thinking, &c, the conjunction that is 
omitted in translating from English into Latin, and the subject following 
that is put in the accusative, and its verb in the infinitive. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive with the accusative is sometimes 
translated by a similar form in English, but usually either by 
the indicative or potential, according to its connection; as, 

Te tud virtute frui cup win s ; We wish you to enjoy, or that you may 
enjoy.... Cic. Miror te ad me nihil scribere.... that you do not write.... Id. 
Audierat non datum iri filio uxorem suo.... that she would not be given.... 
T-r. 

Rem. 4. A present infinitive corresponds to the imperfect indicative, 
when with an accusative it follows a past tense ; as, Dixit Casarcm facere, 
He said that Ccesar was doing. Caes. In like manner the perfect infini- 
tive with an accusative after a past tense corresponds to the pluperfect in- 
dicative ; as, Dixit Cais&rem fecisse, He said that Caesar had done. See 
§268. 

Rem. 5. The present infinitive, after verbs of sense, is often 
equivalent to the present participle ; as, 

Surgere videt lunam, He sees the moon (to rise) rising. Virg. Anna 
rutilare vident. Id. Videbis collucere faces. Id. JYcc Zephyros audis 
spirare ? Do you not hear the zephyrs blowing ? Id. Saape hoc majores 
natu dicere audivi. Cic. The two constructions are sometimes united ; 
as, Medium video discedere caelum, palantes^e polo Stellas. Virg. 

INFINITIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES. 

$ 273. When the particle that, in English, introduces a 
clause denoting a purpose, object, or result, it is a sign of the 
subjunctive in Latin, and is to be expressed by ut, &c. (see 
§262) ; but otherwise it is usually the sign of the accusative 
with the infinitive. 
21 



242 SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. § 273. 

1. (a.) Verbs of endeavoring and resolving take after thern either the 
infinitive or the subjunctive, when the subject remains the same ; but 
when the subject is changed, they take the subjunctive only. 

Such are statuo, constituo, decerno, tento, laboro, paro, medltor, euro, 
nitor, contendo, consilium capio, animum or in animum induco. After 
operant do, id, hoc or Mud ago, nihil antiquius habeo quam, and video for 
euro, the subjunctive is almost exclusively used. 

(b.) Verbs of effecting are construed with ut and the subjunctive. 

Such are facio, efficio, perficio, evinco, pervinco, impetro, assequor, con- 
sequor, committo, &c. 

Facio with ut is also used as a periphrasis for the indicative ; as, Invl- 
tus quidem feci, ut L. Flaminium e sendtu ejicerem, fpr invltus ejeci. Cic. 
— Fac, "suppose" or "granting,' 7 and effcere, "to prove," take the in- 
finitive ; but the passive efftcitur, "it follows," takes also the subjunctive. 
— Facere, "to introduce" or "represent," is joined with a present or 
perfect participle ; as, Lmlium et Scipionem faclmus admirantes. Cic. In 
the passive the infinitive also is found. 

2. Verbs signifying to request, to demand, to admonish, to advise, to en- 
courage, to command, and the like, to express the -purpose of the request, 
&c, take after them the subjunctive with ut or ne. 

Such are rogo, oro, precor, peto, moneo, admoneo, commoneo, hortor, 
exhortor, suadeo, persuadeo, instituo, impello, mando, prcescrlbo, edlco, 
decerno, legem do, censeo, perpello, exclto, inclto, impero, &c. ; as, Te nun 
hortor solum, sed etiam oro, ut tola mente in rempublicam incumbas. Cic. 

jYuntio, scribo, mitto, and even dico, are followed by the subjunctive, 
when they imply an injunction or intention that something should be 
done ; as, Hac ut facias, scribo. Cic. 

Jubeo and veto commonly take the infinitive with the accusative, but 
sometimes the subjunctive with or rarely without ut. Sometimes, with 
the infinitive, the person to whom the command is given is omitted. 

Moneo and admoneo, " I remind," and persuadeo, " 1 convince," take 
the infinitive with the accusative. 

3. In the oratio obliqua, the construction of the accusative with the 
infinitive, is exchanged for that of the subjunctive, to denote possibility, 
liberty, duty, &c. ; as, 

Virginius unum Ap. Claudium legum expertem esse aiebat : respicerent 
tribunal homines castellum omnium scelerum. Liv. 

On the contrary, when the subjunctive has been used, after a verb of 
requesting, commanding, &c, the construction often passes into that of the 
accusative with the infinitive ; the verb of saying being considered as im- 
plied in the verb of requesting, &c. ; as, Orabat ne se ut parricldam liberxhn 
aversarentur : sibi v\ta.m jilice svacariorem fuisse si .... Liv. See §266.2, R.l. 

4. Verbs which denote willingness, unwillingness, permission, and ne- 
cessity, commonly take the accusative and infinitive, but sometimes the 
subjunctive. 

Such are volo, nolo, malo, opto, permitto, patior, sino, concedo, licet, pro- 
hibeo, oportet, and necesse est; as, Optavit ut in currum palris tolleretur. 
Cic. Quis Antonio permlsit, ut partes faceret ? Id. 

An infinitive passive without a subject is sometimes used with oportet ; 
as, Non oportuit relictas, sc. esse ancillas. Ter. Ut ut erat, mansum tamen 
oporiuit, sc. esse. id. JYon putdbant de tali viro suspicio rilbus oporttre 
judicari. Nep. 

Some other verbs which regularly take the accusative with the infinitive 
after them, are occasionally followed by the subjunctive. 



§274. SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. 243 

5. After verbs denoting joy or grief, surprise or wonder, 
either the accusative with the infinitive, or quod with the in- 
dicative or subjunctive, may follow. 

Such are gaudeo, detector, gratum est mihi, doleo, angor, indignor, miror ; 
as, Angor ammo non armis egere rempublicam. Cic. Gaudeo tibi jucun- 
das meas esse literas. Id. Gaudeo quod te interpeliavi. Id. 

After doleo, gaudeo, and other neuter verbs, the clause containing the 
accusative with the infinitive is not the object of the verb, but of some 
preposition understood, as, propter, &c. See § 232, (2.) 

6. By the infinitive, with or without an accusative, a proposition is ex- 
pressed as a thought ; by quod, with the indicative or the subjunctive, it is 
simply represented as a fact. To the latter is frequently joined hoc, id, 
Mud, istud, or hue, ike; as, Illud quoque nobis accedit incommodum, quod 
M. Junius abest. Cic. Hue accedebat, quod, &c. Sail. Quod generally 
refers to past time. 

Quod, with the indicative, in the sense of as to, or with regard to, is 
used at the beginning of a sentence, especially in letters, in repeating an 
expression of a person for the purpose of answering it. See § 206, (14.) 

Note. The construction of the infinitive resembles that of 
a noun in the singular number and neuter gender. 

Thus, like a noun, it may have an adjective or pronoun agreeing with 
it ; as, Totum hoc philosophari displicet. Cic. See § 205, Rem. 8. 

It may be followed by a limiting genitive ; as, Cujus non dimicare fuit 
vincere. Val. Max. 

It may be either the subject or object of a verb. See § § 209, Rem. 3, 
(5,) and 229, Rem. 5. It may also be used after neuter verbs, like an ac- 
cusative, depending on a preposition understood ; as, Te accepisse meas 
literas gaudeo. Ter. See § § 232, (2,) and 273, 5. 

It is also used like a predicate-nominative ; as, Videre est perspicere 
aliquid. Cic. See § 210. 

It may, like a genitive, limit the signification of an adjective or noun. 
See § 270, Rem. 1. 

It may, like an accusative, depend on a preposition ; as Prater plorare. 
Hor. See § 235. 

It is used also like an ablative ; as, Audito regem in Siciliam tendere. Sail. 

Sometimes, also, especially in the poets, it denotes a purpose, like a 
participle in dus ; as, Loricam donat habere viro. Virg. 



PARTICIPLES. 

§274. 1. Participles are followed by the same cases 
as their verbs ; as, 

Quidam, poeta nominatus ; A certain one, called a poet. Cic. Catulo- 
rum oblita lemna, The lioness forgetful of her whelps. Virg. Faventes 
rebus Carthaginiensium, Favoring the interests of the Carthaginians. Liv. 
Tendens ad sidera palmas. Virg. Accusatus rei capitdlis. Cic. Omlna 
doctus. Stat. Casus abies visura marinas. Id. Carituri arbore montes. 
Ovid. Parcendum est teneris. Juv. Ucendum est cetate. Ovid. 

2. The present, perfect, and future active participles, denote 
respectively an action which is present, past, or future, in refer 



244 SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. § 274. 

cnce to the time of the verb with which they are connected 
as, 

Simul hue dicens nitottit se. Virg. Turn ad Thrascam in hortis agentem 
missus est. Tac. Turnum fugientem hw.c terra videbit. Virg. Qui missus 
ab Jlrgis llald consederat urbe. Id. Lamia munere cediidatis perfunctus, 
petit prcet&ram. Cic. J ussus cum fide painas luain. Hor. Juvenis medios 

moriturus in hostes irruit. Virg. feriturus injecit sese in agmen. Id. Ilia 
tibi ventura bclla expediet. Id. 

Remark 1. The present participle sometimes denotes that which is 
about to be done ; as, Interclusit hiems, et terruit duster euntes, .... as they 
were on the point of going. Virg. 

Rem. 2. The present participle, also, sometimes denotes a purpose ; as, 
Ibant, orantes veuiain, .... to sue for favor.... Id. 

Rem. 3. Tbe perfect participle passive often denotes the result of a 
past action, and thus supplies the place of a present participle passive ; as, 
jYotus evolat piced tectus caliglne .... covered with pitchy darkness. Ovid. 

Rem. 4. Habeo, with perfect participles denoting knowledge and deter- 
mination, forms a periphrasis, instead of the verb of the participle ; as, 
Clodii ariimum perspectum habeo, cognltum, judicatum ; for perspexi. Do, 
reddo, euro, and facio, are sometimes so construed with participles ; as, 
Missam iram faciet, for mittet. Ter. Hostes victos dare, for vincere. Sail. 

Rem. 5. The passive participles may supply the place of a verbal noun 
in is or us ; as, Ante Romam condltam, Before the building of Rome. Cic. 
Consilia urbis delendae, Plans for the destruction of the city. Id. See 
§ 275, II. The oblique cases only of participles in dus are thus used, and 
even the perfect participle is not thus used in the nominative by Cicero. 

Rem. 6. In the silver age, the participle in rus, especially with verbs 
of motion, often denotes intention or purpose ; as, 

Ad Jovem Hammonem per git consulturus de origlne sud ; He goes to 
Jupiter Ammon, to consult him about his origin. Just. 

Rem. 7. The participle in dus, also, denotes a purpose, when 
joined with verbs signifying to give, to deliver, to agree for, to 
hare, to receive, to undertake, &c. 

Such are do, trado, trihuo, attribuo, mando, mitto, cenduco, loco, habeo, 
accipio, suscipio, relinquo, euro, deposco, rogo ; as, Testamentum tibi tradit 
legendum, He delivers his will to you to read. Hor. Atlribuit nos truci- 
riandos Cethego. Cic. Quod utendum acceperis, reddito. Id. 

Rem. 8. The participle in dus, when agreeing with the sub- 
ject of a sentence, has the signification of necessity or propri- 
ety ; sometimes, though rarely, except in later writers, that of 
possibility ; as, 

Is venerandus a nobis et colendus est, He should be worshipped and 
honored by us. Cic. Drlenda est Carthago, Carthage must be destroyed. 
Cato. Hoc speranda fuenmt. Virg. So with est used impersonally; as, 
Utriim puce nobis an bcllo esset utendum. Cic. 

Sometimes, also, when not agreeing with the subject of a sentence, it 
has this signification ; as, Facta, narrdbas dissimulanda tibi, You were 
relating facts which you should have concealed. Ovid. A. L. Bruto prin- 
clpe hujus maxlmh conservandi generis et nominis. Cic. 



§ 275. SYNTAX. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 245 

Rr.M. 9. The participle in &«, in its oblique cases, supplies the place 
oi a present participle of the passive voice, to denote a continued or in- 
complete action. Sec- § 275, 11. 

For the dative of the agent after participles in dus, see § 225, III. 

3. Participles are often employed instead of conditional, ex- 
planatory, adversative, and other dependent clauses; as, 

Curio, adfocum sedenti (as he was sitting) magnum auri pondus Sa.7n- 
nltes attulerunt. Cic. Tridui. vlum progressi, rursus rc.ccrttrunt, for, firm 
progressi cssc.nt. Caes. Plura locuturos abire nus jussit, .... when we were 
going to say more. 

If the participle refers to a noun not contained in the leading proposi- 
tion, it is put with that noun in the ablative absolute. See § 257. 

Note. In many cases, for want of a perfect participle active, and a 
present participle passive, this construction cannot be used. Thus, nuum 
amacisset cannot be exchanged for a participle corresponding with the 
English having loved. As the perfect participles of deponent verbs, how- 
ever, have an active signification, they admit of the participial construc- 
tion. The want of a perfect active participle may also be supplied by the 
perfect passive participle in the ablative absolute. See § 257, Rem. 5. 



GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 

<§> 275. I. Gerunds are followed by the same cases as 
their verbs ; as, 

Metus parendi sibi, Fear of obeying him. Sail. Parcendo victis, By 
sparing the vanquished. Liv. Efferur studio patres vestros videndi, I am 
transported with a desire of seeing your fathers. Cic. Petendi consulatuin 
gratia. Sail. Venit ad recipiendum pecunias. Varr. 

Remark 1. The gerund is the same in form as the oblique cases of the 
neuter singular of participles in dus, but it has the meaning of the active 
voice, it is sometimes translated by the present participle with a prepo- 
sition, and sometimes by an infinitive active ; as, Consilium Lacedcemdnem 
occupandi; A design of occupying, or to occupy, Lacedremon. Liv. 

Rem. 2. The gerund is sometimes, though rarely, used in a passive 
sense ; as, Sj>cs restituendi nulla c.rat, .... of being restored. Nep. Athnias 
erudiendi gratid missus, ....for the purpose of being instructed. Just. 
Ante domandum. Virg. 

Rem. 3. As the infinitive is used as the subject or object of a verb, so 
the gerund supplies the genitive, dative, ablative, and, after a preposi- 
tion, the accusative, of a verbal noun of similar meaning. 

II. Instead of the gerund of an active verb with its ob- 
ject in the accusative, the participle in dus is often used, 
the object taking the case in which the gerund would have 
been, and the participle agreeing with it ; as, 

Consilia urbis delenda? (Cic), for urbem delendi, Plans for destroying 
the city. Reparandarum classium eausA (Suet.), for reparandi classes. 
Perpetiendo laburi idoneus. Colum. Ad defendendam Romam ab oppug- 
nandA Capua duces Rumdnos abstrahlre. Liv. 
21 * 



246 SYNTAX. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. $ 275. 

Remark I. The same construction is used with the future passive 
participles of utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and rarely of medeor, as these 
verbs were originally followed by the accusative ; as, JEtas ad hcec utenda 
idonect. Ter. Justitia, fruendae causd. Cic. In muntre fungendo. Id. 

Rem. 2. When a participle is thus used for a gerund, it is called a 
gerundive, and is usually translated like a gerund. The gerundive cannot 
be substituted for the gerund, where ambiguity would arise from the gen- 
der not being distinguishable. It should not be used when the object of 
the gerund is a neuter pronoun or adjective ; as, Allquid faciendi ratio 
(Cic), not alicujus. Jirtem et vera et falsa dijudicandi (Id.), not verorum 
dijudicandorum. 

III. Examples of the construction of gerunds, in each of their cases, 
have been already given, among other nouns, under tbe heads Genitive, Da- 
tive, Accusative, and Ablative. The following remarks specify in what con- 
nections they are used : — 

Remark 1. The genitive of gerunds and gerundives may 
follow either nouns or adjectives ; as, 

Amor habendi. Cic. Patriam spes videndi. Virg. Nam habet natvra, 
ut alidrum omnium rerum, sic vivendi modum. Cic. Barbara consuetudo 

twminum immolandorum. Id Venandi studiosi. Cic. Certus eundi. 

Virg. Insuctus navigandi. Caes. Peritus civitdtis regenda. Nep. 

(1.) The nouns after which these genitives most frequently occur are, 
ainor. ars, causa, consilium, consuetudo, cupiditas, facultas, gratia, locus, 
licentia, modus, occasio, otium, potestus, spes, studium, tempos, venia, vis, 
voluntas, copia, libido, sputium. 

(2.) The adjectives which most frequently take after them these geni- 
tives, are such as denote desire, knowledge, remembrance, and their contra- 
ries ; as, cupldus, studiosus, peritus, impcrltus, insuctus, certus, rudis, &c. 
See § 213, Rem. 1, (3.) 

(3.) The genitive plural sometimes depends upon a gerund in di, instead 
of being joined with the gerundive ; els, Facultas agrorum condonandi. Cic. 
Nominandi istorum erit copia. Plaut. In castra ventrunt sui purgandi 
causa. Caes. This construction is most common with pronouns. 

(4.) The gerund in di, for the gerundive, is sometimes found also with 
pronouns of the singular number and feminine gender; as, Quoniam tui 
videndi est copia. Plaut. Ego ejus videndi cupldus recta consequor. Ter. 
In these examples, tui and ejus are feminine- 

(5.) The gerund and gerundive, after the verb sum, are sometimes 
found in the genitive denoting a tendency or purpose, with no noun or 
adjective on which they can depend ; as, Regium imperium initio conser- 
vandae libertatis fuerat . Sail. Causa or gratia may sometimes be supplied. 
In some other cases, the word on which the gerund in di depends is not 
expressed ; as Maneat provincialibus potentiam suam tali modo ostentandi, 
sc. facultas. Tac. Cum haberem in anlmo navigandi, sc. proposltum. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The dative of gerunds and gerundives is used 
especially after adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness, and 
also after verbs, to denote a. purpose; as, 

Charta emporetica est inutilis scribendo. Plin. Capessendas reipublicce 
habilis. Tac. Ut nee triumviri accipiundo, nee scriba referundo sujjicercnt, 
Liv. Locum oppldo condendo capere. Id. 

CI.) The verbs and phrases upon which this dative most frequently de- 



§ 276. SYNTAX. SUPINES. 247 

pends are, studeo ; intentus sum; impendo, consumo or insumo tempus ; 
operam do, desum, sum (signifying to serve for, to be adequate to), facio t 
and sufficio ; and, in later writers, on verbs of motion. 

The dative after sum is usually supposed to depend on an adjective un- 
derstood ; but see § 227, Rem. 3. 

(2.) The dative of the gerundive, denoting a purpose, is also used after 
names of office ; as, Dec.emviri legibus scribendis. Liv. So, Comitia cre- 
andis decemviris. Id. 

(3.) A purpose is more commonly expressed by ad and the accusative, 
than by the dative ; as, Pecus ad vescendum hominibus apta. Cic. 

(4.) Instead of the gerund or gerundive after adjectives, the poets some- 
times use the infinitive, in imitation of the Greek construction ; as, Audax 
omnia perpeti, i. e. ad omnia per petienda. Hor. See § 270, Rem. 1. 

Rem. 3. The accusative of gerunds and gerundives follows 
the prepositions ad, to, or inter, during or amid, and sometimes 
ante,, circa, or oh ; as, 

Ad pcenitendum properat, qui citb judicat. Pub. Syr. Inter bibendum, 
While drinking. Just. Ad castra facicnda. Cic. Ob absolvendum. Id. 

Rem. 4. The ablative of gerunds and gerundives follows 
the prepositions a, (ab), de, e, (ex), or in; or it is used without 
a preposition, as the ablative of cause, manner, or means ; 
as, 

Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo. Cic. Ex assentando. Ter. Non 
videor a defendendis hominibus discedere. Cic. Crescit eundo. Virg. 
Rem quarunt mercaturis faciendis. Cic. Orationem Latlnam legendis 
nostris efficies pleniorem. Id. 

This ablative also occurs, though rarely, after pro and cum ; as, Pro 
vapulando. Flaut. Cum loquendo. Quint. 



SUPINES. 

§ 276. I. Supines in um are followed by the same 
cases as their verbs ; as, 

Non Graiis servltum matribus ibo, I shall not go to serve Grecian 
matrons. Virg. Eur yp plums citatum oracula Phcebi mittimus, We send 
Eurypylus to consult the oracle of Apollo. Id. 

II. Supines in um follow verbs of motion, and serve 
to denote the purpose of the motion ; as, 

Te id admonitum venio. Plaut. Cubitum discesslmus. Cic. Ire defec- 
tum monumenta regis. Hor. So after participles ; as, Patriam defensum 
revocdtus. Nep. Spectatum admissi. Hor. 

Remark 1. Supines in um sometimes follow verbs which do not ex- 
press motion ; as, Do filiam nuptum. Ter. Vos ultum injurias hortor. Sail. 

Rem. 2. The supine in um with eo often forms a periphrasis equiva- 
lent to the same mood and tense of the verb from which the supine is 
formed ; as, JYe bonos omnes perditum eant (Sail.), for perdant* Ereptum 
mint (Id.), for eripiunt. Ultum ivit (Tac.), for ultus est. 



248 SYNTAX. SUPINES. § 276. 

Rem. 3. The supine in um most frequently occurs with the infinitive 
iri, with which it forms the future infinitive passive ; as, Brutum visum 
iri a me puto. Cic. In this construction the accusative properly depends 
upon the supine, and iri is used impersonally ; thus, " I suppose (that it 
is going by me), i. e. that I am going to see Brutus." 

Rem. 4. Instead of the supine in um after a verb of motion, a gerund 
or gerundive in the accusative with ad, or in the genitive with causa or 
gratid, also the subjunctive with ut or qui, and a present or future partici- 
ple active, may be used to express a purpose. For the gerund and gerun- 
dive, see § 275 ; for the subjunctive with ut, § 262, — with qui, § 264 ; and 
for participles, § 274. 

The infinitive, also, is sometimes used by the poets, instead of the 
supine, to express a purpose. See § 271. 

III. The supine in u is used to limit the meaning of 
adjectives signifying wonderful, agreeable, easy or difficult, 
worthy or unworthy, honorable or base, and a few others ; 
as, 

Mirabile dictu ! Wonderful to tell, or to be told ! Virg. Jucundum cog- 
nltu atque audltu, Pleasant to be known and heard. Cic. Res factu facilis , 
A thingeasy to be done. Ter. Faciliainventu. Gell. Incredibile mem- 
ordtu. Sail. Turpia dictu. Cic. Optimum factu. Id. 

Remark 1 . The principal adjectives after which the supine in u occurs, 
are affabilis, arduus, aspcr, bonus, di gnus ,indi gnus , facilis , difficilis.faEdus, 
gravis, hone stus, horrendus, incredibilis ; jucundus , injucundus, memorabilis, 
pulcher, rarus, turpis, and utilis. 

Rem. 2. The supine in u is used also after the nouns fas, 
nefas, and opus ; as, 

Hoc fas est dictu. Cic. JYefas dictu. Ovid. Dictu opus est. Ter. 

Rem. 3. As the supine in u is commonly translated by a passive form, 
it is placed under the passive voice. In many cases, however, it may 
with equal or greater propriety be translated actively. It seems not to 
differ in its nature from other verbal nouns in us, of the fourth declension. 
In the expressions, Obsondtu redeo (Plaut.), Cubitu surgat (Cato), ob- 
sondtu and cubitu, though following verbs, are by some considered as 
supines, by others as nouns depending on a preposition understood. 

The supine in u, even when it follows adjectives, might, as a verbal 
noun, be referred to § 250. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the supine in u, an infinitive, a gerund or gerun- 
dive with ad, or a verbal noun in the ablative, and sometimes in the 
dative or accusative, may be used ; as, Ardua imitdtu, ceterum cognosci 
utilia. Val. Max. Illud autem facile ad credendum est. Cic. 0/;ws pro- 
scriptions dignum. Plin. Aqua potui jucunda. Id. Fac'dior ad intellec- 
tum atque imitationem. Quint. 

The construction with ad and the gerund, or with sum and the infini- 
tive, is used by the best writers after facilis , difficllis, and jucundus. The 
most common construction of dignus is with qui and the subjunctive. 
See § 264, 9. 



§ 277. SYNTAX. ADVERBS. 249 



ADVERBS. 

§ 277. Adverbs modify or limit the meaning of verbs, 
adjectives, and sometimes of other adverbs ; as, 

Bent mones, You advise well. Ter. Fortissimo urgentes, Most vigor- 
ously pressing on. Plin. Malt narrando. Ter. Longt dissimilis. Cic. 
Valdt bend. Id. 

Remark 1. Adverbs sometimes, also, modify nouns; as, 

HomSrus plant orator. Cic. Admodum puella. Liv. Nihil admodum. 
Cic. Lath rex. Virg. hath tyrannus. Hor. 

Rem. 2. Adverbs may also modify adjective pronouns, and 
prepositions; as, 

Plant noster. Cic. Paulo ultra eum locum. Cses. 

Rem. 3. A negative adverb, modifying another negative 
word, destroys the negation; as, 

Non par ere noluit, He was not unwilling to obey. Nep. Haud ignara 
mali, Not ignorant of evil. Virg. Haud nihil est, It is something. Ter. 
So, nonnulli, some ; nonnunquam, sometimes. Non, before a negative 
word, commonly heightens the affirmative sense ; as, Homo non indoclus t 
i. e. homo sane doctus. Non semel, i. e. sapius. 

Rem. 4. When the subject and predicate of a proposition 
are both modified by negative words, and also when the predi- 
cate contains two negatives, the proposition is affirmative ; as, 

Nemo non videt, Every one sees. Cic. So, if both the antecedent and 
the predicate of a relative clause are negative, the proposition is affirma- 
tive ; as, Nemo est, qui nesciat ; Every body knows. Cic. 

Rem. 5. Two negatives, however, though connected as above speci- 
fied, sometimes strengthen the negation ; as, Neque ille haud objidct. mihi. 
Plaut. Jura te non nociturum homlni nemlni. Id. Especially are neque, 
nee, and sometimes non, thus used after a negative, instead of aut or eel ; 
as, Non me carminibus vincet, nee Orpheus, nee Linus. Virg. Neminem, 
non re, non vcrbo, nonvultu dcnique offendi. Cic. Nullius rei neque pros, 
neque manceps /actus est. Nep. 

Rem. 6. Non is sometimes omitted after non modo or non 
solum, when followed, in a subsequent clause, by ne quidem ; as, 

Mihi non modo irasci, sed ne dolere quidem impune licet, .... not only not 
to be angry, but.... Cic. Cum senatui non solum jucdre rempubllcam, sed 
ne lugcre quidem liceret. Id. 

Non is also rarely omitted after non modd when followed by sed or vcriim 
with ctiam ; as, Qui non modo eafutura timet, verum etiamfert, sustinetque 
yrcesentia; Who not only does not fear.... Cic. 

Rem. 7. Facile, in the sense of undoubtedly, clearly, is joined to super- 
latives, and words of similar import; as, Vir unus totius Grcecice facile 
doctissimus. Cic. Homo regionis illius virtute facile princeps. Id. 

Rem. 8. Adverbs are sometimes equivalent to phrases con- 
taining an antecedent and a relative, both of which would be 
in an oblique case. 



250 SYNTAX. CONJUNCTIONS. <§> 278. 

When thus resolved, the antecedent will be found to modify some word 
in its own clause, and the relative to serve both as a connective for a sub- 
sequent clause, and a modifier of some word contained in it. Hence, 
such adverb serves the threefold purpose of a connective and a double 
modifier; as, 

Ed postquam Ccesar pervenit, obsides poposcit ; After Csesar came thither, 
he demanded hostages (Caes.) ; i. e. Obsides poposcit post id tempus, in quo 
eo pervenit; He demanded hostages after the time at which he came thither; 
where post id tempus modifies jyoposcit, and in quo serves as a connective, 
and also modifies pervenit. 

Frequently, for greater precision, an additional adverb is introduced, 
which, in the resolution of the phrase, stands in, and sometimes supplies, 
the antecedent clause ; as, Ed postquam pervenit, turn obsides poposcit, .... 
then he demanded hostages; i. e. Obsides poposcit tempore, post id tempus 
in quo ed pervenit; He demanded hostages at a time subsequent to the time 
at which he came thither. So, Cum venit calamitas, turn detrimentum accip- 
itur (Cic), i. e. Detrimentum eo tempore accipitur, in quo venit calamitas. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 278. Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, and 
some others, connect words which are in the same con- 
struction. 

Words are in the same construction, when they stand in the same rela- 
tion to some other word or words in the sentence. Hence conjunctions 
connect the same cases of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, the same moods 
of verbs, and adverbs and prepositions relating to the same word ; as, 

Pulvis ct umbra sumus, We are dust and shade. Hor. Si tu et Tullia 
naletis, ego et Cicero valemus. Cic. Aggere jacto turrlbus^ue constitutes. 
Ctes. Clarus et honoratus vir, An illustrious and honorable man. Id. 
Ccesar Iiemos cohortatus, libcraliterque oratione prosecutus. Caes. Pater 
tuus, quern colui et dilexi. Cic. Cum triumphum egeris, censorque iiieris, 
et obieris legdtus. Id. Cum ad oppldum accessisset, castrdque ibi poneret. 
Cses. Ades arilmo, et omitte timdrem. Cic. Ea videre ac perspicere 
potestis. Id. Graviter et copiose dixisse dicltur. Id. Cum fratre an sine. 
Id. Cui carmina cordi, numerosque intendere nervis. Virg. 

Remark 1. This rule includes the copulative conjunctions ac, atque, 
et, etiam t que, nee, neque, the disjunctives aut, seu, sive, ve, vel, neve, neu, 
and also qudm, praterquam, nisi, an, nempe, quamvis, nedum, sed, autem, 
xeriim, and, in general, such as, when used to connect clauses, do not im- 
ply a dependence of the following upon the preceding clause. To these 
may be added the adverbs of likeness, ceu, tanquam, quasi, ut, &c. ; as, 
JYec census, nee clarum nomen avorum, sed probitas magnos ingeniumque 
facit. Ovid. Philosophi negant quenquam virum bonum esse, nisi sapien- 
tem. Cic. Gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur. Id. 

Rem. 2. Words thus connected are sometimes in different cases, though 
in the same construction; as, Meac^reipublicse interest. Cic. (See § 219.) 
Sive es Roma?, sive in Eplro. Id. (See §§221 and 254.) In Mettii de- 
scendat judicis aures, et patris et nostras. Hor. See § 211, Rem. 3. In 
like manner, Hannibal non aliter vinci potuit, qudm mora.. 

Rem. 3. The above conjunctions connect not only single 
words, but clauses whose construction is the same ; that is, 



<§> 279. SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 251 

whose subjects are in the same case, and their verbs in the 
same mood ; as, 

Coacldunt venti, fugiuntque nuhes ; The winds subside, and the clouds 
disperse. Hor. Locum, quern et non coquit sol, et tangit ros. Varr. Ludi 
decern per dies facti sunt, neque res ulla prcetermissa est. Cic. Vides, ut 
altd stet nive candidum Soracte, nee jam sustineant onus silv® laborantes, 
gduque nurnina constiterint acuto. Hor. Jntelligltis et anlmum ei prasto 
fuisse, nee consilium def'uisse. Cic. 

Rem. 4. As the subjunctive is often used for the imperative, they may 
be connected by the above conjunctions ; as, Disce nee invideas. Pers. 

Rem. 5. The indicative and subjunctive may also be thus connected, if 
the clause of the latter is not dependent ; as, Nee satis scio, nee, si sciam t 
dicere ausim. Liv. 

Rem. 6. The conjunction is often omitted; as, Cui Homos, domus,uxor. 
Liber i, procurator esset. Cic. Qute vitia sunt non senectutis, scd inertis, 
igndvee, somniculosce senectutis. Id. Abiit, excessit, evdsit, erupit. Id. 

Rem. 7 Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions are often used, before 
each of two or more connected words or clauses, in order to mark the 
connection more forcibly ; as, Et pecunia persuddet, et gratia, et auctoritas 
dieentis, et dignitas, et postremd aspectus. Quinct. Hoc et turpe, nee 
tamen tutum. Cic. Neque nata est, et ceterna est. Id. Et tibi et tnihi 
voluptdti fore. Id. Res ipsa aut invitdbit aut dehortabitur. Id. 

In like manner nunc. ...nunc, simul....simul, partim....partim, qua. ...qua, 

turn turn, cum. ...turn, are used before words or clauses. Turn. ...turn not 

only signify both and, but also at one time at another time. Cum 

turn generally give a greater emphasis to the latter word or clause, which 
is often increased by the addition of verb, certb, praicipub, imprimis, 
maximb, &c. ; as, Luxuria, cum omni cetdti turpis, turn maxlme senectuti 
fosdissima est. Cic. 

Rem. 8. To connect different names of the same person or thing, sive 
or seu, rather than aut or vel, is employed ; as, Mars sive Mavors. 

Rem. 9. Jlc and atquc signify as a,nd than after adjectives and adverbs 

denoting similarity or dissimilarity ; as, Similiter jfacisac si me roges, as 

if you should ask me. Cic. Me colit a?que atque patronum suum,....diS much 
as.... Id. Si aliter scribo ac sentio, If I write otherwise than 1 think. Id. 
llli sunt alio ingenio atque tu. Plaut. 



ARRANGEMENT. 
I. OF WORDS. 

<§> 2T9. 1. in English, after connectives, are placed, first, the subject, 
and the words which modify or limit it ; next, the verb and its modifiers ; 
then the object of the verb ; and last, prepositions, and the words depend- 
ing upon them. This is called the logical or natural order. 

2. In a Latin sentence, after connectives, are placed, 
first, the subject and its modifiers ; then the oblique cases, 
and other words which depend upon or modify the verb ; 
and last of all, the verb. 



252 SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. $ 279. 

This arrangement, however, though common, is by no means invariable, 
since it is a general rule, that the most emphatic icord in a sentence is to be 
placed first. 

3. Connectives generally stand at the beginning of a clause. 

The following connectives may stand either in the first or second place, 
and sometimes in the third : — equldern, ergo, etenim, etiam, ideo, igltur, itd- 
que, licet, namque, quia, quamquam, quippe, quoniam, saltern, sed, tamen, 
ut, utpote, and some others. 

Autem, enim, and verb (but), commonly occupy the second place, some- 
times the third ; as, Jlle enim revocdtus resistere cozpit. Cass. Ego vero 
vellem, affuisses. Cic. The enclitics que, ne, ve, are usually subjoined to 
the first word in a clause. 

Quidem and quoque are subjoined to the emphatic word in a clause ; as, 
Verbo ille reus erat, re quidem vero Oppianlcus. Cic. Me scilicet maxxmk, 
sed proxlmh ilium quoque fcfellissem. Id. 

In negative sentences, ne precedes, and qzride?n follows, the emphatic 
word ; as, Ne ad Catdnem quidem provoedbo. Cic. 

4. When a word is repeated in the same clause, so that one is opposed 
to, or distinguished from, the other, they must stand together ; as, Hom- 
ines homimbus maxlmh utiles esse possunt. Cic. Equites alii alio dilapsi 
sunt. Liv. 

5. Words used antithetically are also placed near each other ; as, Dum 
tacent, clamant. Cic. Fragile corpus animus scvipiternus movet. Id. 

6. Inquam and usually aio, introducing a quotation, follow one or more of 
the words quoted ; as, " Won ndsti quid pater," inquit, " Chrysippus dicat." 
Hor. " Quid," aio, " tua crimlna prodis ? " Ovid. 

7. Adjectives are commonly placed after their nouns, especially when any 
thing is dependent on them. When a noun is limited by another noun, 
as well as by an adjective, the adjective usually precedes both ; as, Cilia 
officii pra.cepta. Cic. Tuum erga dignitatem meain studium. Id. 

Demonstratives, and the adjectives primus, medius, &c. (see § 205, 
Rem. 17), usually precede their nouns ; as, Ea res. Cass. His ipsis ver- 
bis. Cic. Media nox. Caes. Rellqua JEgyptus. Cic. 

8. Monosyllables are usually prefixed to longer words with which they 
are connected ; as, Vir clarisslmus. Cic. Vis ternpestdtis. Ca?s. 

9. When nouns are put in apposition, the one which explains or defines 
the other is generally put last ; as, Marcus Tullius consul. Sail. Opes 
irritamenta malorum. Ovid. 

In the arrangement of names of persons, the pramdmen stands first, 
next the nomen, third the cognomen, and last the agnomen ; as, Publius 
Cornelius Scipio Africdnus. The prae nomen is usually denoted by a 
letter. 

10. Oblique cases precede the words upon which they de- 
pend, but they follow prepositions ; as, 

Populi Romdni laus est. Cic. Laudis avldi, pecuniae liberates. Sail. 
Cunctis esto benignus, nulli blandus, paucis famiMdris, omnibus aquas. 

Sen. Monumentum asre perennius. Hor. Hanc tibi dono do. Ter. Ad 

meridiem spectans. Cic. Extra pericidum. Id. 

Genitives depending upon neuter adjectives are commonly placed last; 
as, Incerta fortunai. Liv. Nee tibi plus cordis, sed minus oris intst. Ovid. 

When a noun which is governed by a preposition, is modified by other 
words which precede it, the preposition usually stands before the words by 



<§> 279. SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 253 

which the noun is modified ; as, A primd luce ad sextam horam. Liv. Ad 
privatum doloremfuit luctuosum. Cic. Ad animi mei latitiam. Id. 

Sometimes, however, the preposition comes between its noun and an 
adjective, or a genitive by which the noun is modified; as, JVulld in re. 
Cic. Justis de causis. Id. Suos inter cequales. Id. 

Per, in adjurations, is often separated by other words ; as, Per ego te deos 
oro. Ter. 

Terms and versus follow their cases, and sometimes other prepositions, 
especially when joined with qui or hie. 

11. Infinitives precede the verbs on which they depend ; as, 
Jugurtha, ubi eos Africa* decessisse ratus est, neque propter loci naturam 

Cirlam armis expugnare possit, mania, circumdat. Sail. Servire magis 
quam imperare parati estis. Id. 

12. A word which has the same relation to several words, either pre- 
cedes or follows them all ; as, Vir gravis ct sapiens. Cic. Clarus et hono- 
ratus vir. Id. 

13. Relatives are commonly placed after their antecedents, 
and as near to them as possible ; as, 

Qui sim, ex eo, quern ad te misi, cognosces. Sail. Literas ad te misi,per 
quas gratias t'tbi egi. Cic. 

14. Quisquc is generally placed after se, suus, qui, ordinals and superla- 
tives ; as, Suos quisque debet tueri. Cic. Satis super que est sibi sudrum 
cuique rerum cura. Id. Sevcrltas animadversionis injimo cuique gratis- 
sima. Id. Quisque very rarely begins a proposition. 

15. An adverb is usually placed immediately before the word which it 
qualifies; but if the same word is modified by the oblique case of a noun, 
the latter commonly follows the adverb ; as, Male porta male dilabuntur. 
Cic. Nihil tarn asperum neque tam difficile esse, quod non cupidissime 

facturi essent. Sail. Imperium facile lis artibus retinetur, quibus initio 

•parturn est. Id. Sed maxime adolescentium familiar itates appetebat. Id. 
JVon tam in bcllis et in pradiis, quam in promissis etfide firmiorem. Cic. 

In some phrases, custom has established a certain order, which must be 
observed and imitated ; as, JVe quid respublica detrimenti capiat. Cic. 

16. Exceptions to the foregoing principles are very numerous. These 
may arise from a regard to the harmony of the sentence, from poetic 
license, or from the following rule, which sometimes modifies nearly all 
the preceding : — 

The emphatic word is placed before the word or words con- 
nected with it which are not emphatic. 

17. A sentence should not close like a hexameter verse, with a dactyl 
and spondee ; as, Esse videtur ; nor, in general, with a monosyllable. 

18. Hiatus should be avoided ; that is, a word beginning with a vowel 
should not follow a word ending with a vowel. 

19. A concurrence of long words or long measures, — of short words or 
short measures, — of words beginning alike or ending alike, — should be 
avoided. 

22 



254 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. § 280, 281. 



II. OF CLAUSES. 

§ 2o0« A compound sentence, in which the leading clause is 
divided by the insertion of one or more subordinate clauses, is called a 
period. 

1. In a regular period, the leading verb is placed at the end, 
and the subordinate clauses between the parts of the leading 
clause ; as, 

Pausanias, cum semianlmis de templo cldtus esset, confestim animam 
efnavit ; Pausanias, when he had been carried out of the temple but just 
alive, immediately expired. Nep. Ego, si ab improbis ct perdltis civltws 
rempublicam teneri viderem, sicut ct mcis temporlbus scimus, ct nonnuliis 
aliis accidisse accepimus, non modo prremiis, qua. apud vie minimum Talent, 
sed ne periculis quidem compulsus ullis, quibus tamen moventur ctiamfor- 
tissimi viri, ad eorum causam me adjungerem. Cic. 

2. If the verbs of the leading and dependent clauses have the same sub- 
ject, or the same word depending on them, they are commonly formed 
into a period; as, AntigDnus, quum adversus Selcucum Lysimachumque 
dimicdret, in prcelio occlsus est. Nep. 

So, also, when the word which depends on the verb of the leading 
clause is the subject of the dependent clause ; as, Manlio, quum dictator 
fuisset, Marcus Pomponius tribunus plcbis diem dixit. Cic. 

3. When obscurity would arise from separating the leading subject and 
verb by dependent words or clauses, they are often placed together at the 
beginning or end of the sentence ; as, Latae (sunt) deinde leges, non solum 
qua rcgni suspicione consulcm absolvercnt, sed qua adco in contrarium 
verterent, ut populdrcm etiam facer cnt. Liv. 

The position of the leading verb is also often otherwise varied, from 
regard to emphasis, to avoid monotony, or to prevent its meeting with the 
verb of the last dependent clause. 

4. When one clause is interrupted by the introduction of another, the 
latter should be finished before the first is resumed. 

5. Clauses expressing a cause, a condition, a time, or a comparison, usu- 
ally precede the clauses to which they relate. 

6. A short clause usually stands before, rather than after a long one. 



ANALYSIS. 

§ 281. The analysis of a proposition, or of a compound 
sentence, consists in dividing it into the several parts of which 
it is composed, and pointing out their mutual relations. 

In analyzing a proposition, it is first to be divided into its logical subject 
and predicate. See § § 200, 201, 202. 

If the logical subject consists of more than one word, its grammatical 
subject should be pointed out, and distinguished as simple or compound. 
See §201,1. II. 

When the grammatical subject is determined, the words which modify 
or limit it should next be specified, and then the words which modify 
them and so on, until the logical subject is exhausted. See § 201, III. 



<§> 281. SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 255 

In analyzing the logical predicate, the grammatical predicate should 
first be mentioned, then the words which modify or limit it, and their 
modifiers, until the logical predicate is exhausted. See § 202. 

In analyzing a proposition, the rules for the agreement and dependence 
of words should be given, and likewise their various inflections. 

The analysis of a compound sentence requires, first, its resolution into it3 
several component propositions ; and, secondly, their analysis in the man- 
ner before mentioned. See § 203. 

In resolving a sentence into its component clauses, the participial con- 
structions equivalent to clauses should be mentioned, and ellipses supplied. 
See § 203, 5. 

When the compound sentence is resolved, the connection of the clauses 
should be pointed out, and their dependence or independence. See 
§ 203, 2. In either case, the connective words, if any, should be 
mentioned, and the connection, if any exists, with the preceding sentence. 
See § 203, 4. When clauses are dependent, the relation in which they 
stand should be explained, the character of the connectives stated, and the 
rules for the moods of the verbs given. See § § 262 — 266 and 272, 273. 

The following are examples of the analysis of simple and compound 
sentences : — 

1. Sccvius vent is agitatur ingcns pinus, The great pine is 
more violently shaken by the winds. Hor. 

l/igcns pinus is the logical subject ; savins vends agitatur is the logical 
predicate. 

The grammatical subject is pinus : this is modified by ingens. 0. 

The grammatical predicate is agitatur : this is modified by stevihs* and 
vends. c 

Pinus is a common noun,<* of the second and fourth declension, 6 femi- 
nine gender/ and nominative case. ff 

Ingens is an adjective, of the third declension, and of one termination,* 
in the nominative case, feminine gender, agreeing with pinus. 1 

Jlgitdtur is an active k frequentative l verb, of the first conj. from agito, 
derived from ago [Name its principal parts], formed from the 1st root, 
[Give the formations of that root.] It is in the passive voice, indicative 
mood, present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing with pinus." 1 

Saiviiis is an adverb, in the comparative degree, from sceve or sarclter* 
derived from the adjective sarous, modifying the verb agitatur. p 

Vends is a common noun, of the second declension, 9 masculine gen- 
der, r in the plural number, ablative case.* 

2. Mithridates, dudrum et viginti gentium rex, totldem Un- 
guis jura dixit; Mithridates, king of twenty-two nations, pro- 
nounced judicial decisions in as many languages. Plin. 

The logical subject is Mithridates dudrum et viginti gentium rex. 

The logical predicate is totldem Unguis jura dixit. 

The grammatical subject is Mithridates : this is modified by rex. 1 Rex 
is limited by gentium^ which is itself limited by dudrum and viginti. 9 
Et connects dudrum and viginti.' 10 

a §201, III. 3. /$29,2. ' * 187, II. 1. ?§38. •§ 201, III. 3 

6 1 202, III. 3. * J 201, IV. 3. mj209. '6 46. & Rem. 1 



&202, III.2. Mill. "$194. «§247. «§278. 

d 1 26. * & 205. o A 192, II. ■ J 201, III. 1. 

t & 99. * $ 1^1, 1. p 1 277. « j 201, III. 2 



256 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. $ 281. 

The grammatical predicate is dixit, which is limited by jura* and Un- 
guis,' 1 and the latter by toildem. 

Mithridatcs is a proper noun, 6 of the third declension, masculine gen- 
der, d and nominative case. 

Rex is a common noun, 3d dec., c masc. gen./ in apposition with Mithri- 
datcs/ 

Gentium is a com. noun., 3d dec./ fern. gen./ in the genitive plural,' 
limiting r ex. k 

Duarum is a numeral adj., of the cardinal' kind, in the genitive ease, 
fern, gen., agreeing with gentium.™ 

Et is a copulative conjunction. 71 

Viginti is a cardinal numeral adjective indeclinable, 1 limiting gentium. m 

Dixit is an active verb, of the third conjugation/ from dico [Give the 
principal parts], 9 formed from the second root [Give the formations of that 
root], in the act. voice., ind. mood, perf. indefinite tense, r sing, num., 3d 
pers., agreeing with Mithriddtes. 8 

Jura, a com. noun, 3d dec.,' neut. gen., u plur. num., ace. case, the ob- 
ject of dixit. 9 

Linguis, a com. noun, 1st dec, fern. gen./ plural num., ablative case.* 

Tutidcm, an adj., indeclinable/ in the plural number, limiting Linguis. 

3. Romana pubes, scdato tandem pavore, postquam ex tarn 
turbido die screna et tranquilla lux rediit, ubi vacuum sedan 
rcgiam vidit, ctsi satis credebai patrtbus, qui proximi stcterant, 
subllmem raptum procelld ; tamen, velut orbitatis metu icta, 
mcestum aliquamdiu silentium obtinuit. Liv. 

The preceding compound sentence constitutes a period/ and it may be 
resolved into the following clauses : — 

1. Romana pubes tamen, velut orbitatis metu icta, mcestum aliquamdiu 
silentium obtinuit, —which is the leading clause. na 

2. scdato tandem pavore, 

3. posUptam ex tarn turbido die serena et tranquilla lux redid, 

4. ubi vidit, 

5. vacuam (esse) sedem regiam, 

6. etsi satis credebat patrlbus, 

7. qui proximi stcterant, 

8. subllmem raptum procelld. 

In the preceding clauses, the predicates are printed in Italics. 

The grammatical subject of the leading clause is pubes, which is limited 
by Romana and icta. Icta is modified by velut and metu, which last is limit- 
ed by orbitatis. The grammatical predicate of that clause is obtinuit • this 
is limited by aliquamdiu and silentium, which is itself limited by mastum. 

Pubes, a collective noun, 66 3ddec., cc fern. gen./ d sing, num., nom. case. 

Romana, a patrial ee adj., of the 1st and 2d dec.// fern, gen., sing, num., 
nom. case, agreeing with pubes. es 

Tamen, an adversative conjunction/^ relating to etsi in the Ctli clause, 



<§> 281. SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 257 

and denoting that the predicate of this clause is true, notwithstanding the 
concession made in that clause. 

VeLut, an adverb, modifying icta. a 

Icta, a perf. part, pass., from the active verb ico, 3d conj.* [Principal parts 
in both voices], fem. gen., sing, num., nom. case, agreeing with pubes. e 

Metu, an abstract noun, d 4th dec.,' masc. gen., sing, num., abl. case/ 

Orbitdtis, an abstract d noun, derived from orbus, 3d dec.,' fem. gen.,* 
sing, num., gen. case, limiting metu.* 

Obtinuit, an active verb of the 2d conj.,* from obtineo, compounded of 
prep, ob and teneo l [Give the principal parts, and the formations of the 
second root]," 1 in the active voice, ind. mood., perf. indef. tense, sing, 
num., 3d person, agreeing with pubes." 

Miquamdiu, an adverb, compounded of aliquis and diu° and limiting 
obtinuit. p 

Sitentium, a com. noun, 2d dec, neut. gen., 9 sing, num., ace. case, the 
object of obtinuit r 

Mcestum, an adj., 1st and 2d dec, neut. gen., sing num., ace case, 
agreeing with silentium. 3 

The 2d is a participial clause, equivalent to quum pavor tandem seddtus 
esset. 1 

Pavore, an abstract d verbal u noun, from paveo, 3d dec," masc. gen.," 
sing, num., abl. case, absolute with seddto.* 

Seddto, a perf. part, pass., from the act. verb sedo, of the 1st conj., y 
[Principal parts m both voices], masc. gen., sing, num., abl. case,* agree- 
ing with pac6rc. aa 

Tandem, an adverb of time, modifying seddto. bb 

Postquam, an adverb of time, compounded of post and quam, modifying 
obtinuit and rediit, and serving to connect the first and third clauses. cc 

The grammatical subject of the 3d clause is lux, which is limited by 
screna and tranquiila. The grammatical predicate is rediit, which is modi- 
fied by postquam and die. Die is modified by turbldo, which is itself modi- 
fied by tarn. 

Lux, a com. noun, 3d &ec., dd fem. gen., ce sing, num., nom. case. 

Serena, an adj., 1st and 2d dec, fem. gen., sing, num., nom. case, agree- 
ing with lux." 

Et, a copulative conjunction, connecting screna and tranquiila/^ 

Tranquiila, like screna. 

Rediit, a neuter verb, from redco, compounded of insep. prep, red gg and 
eo hh [Prin. parts], ind. mood., perf. indef. tense, sing, num., 3d person, 
agreeing with luxM 

Die, a com. noun, 5th dec,** masc. gen., sing, num., abl. case after 
prep, ex. 11 

Turbldo, an adj. agreeing with die. Tarn, an adverb, modifying tur- 
bldo. hb 

Ubi, an adverb of time, and, like postquam, a connective, and a double 
modifier. It connects the fourth clause to the first, and limits the 
predicates vidit and obtinuit. ce 



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22 



258 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. <§> 281. 

The subject of the 4th clause is the same as that of the first, with which 
it is connected ; it is therefore omitted.* 

The grammatical predicate of the 4th clause is vidit : this is limited by 
its object, which is the 5th clause. 6 

Vidit, an act. verb, 2d conj. [Principal parts and formation], act. voice, 
ind. mood, perf. indef. tense, sing, num., 3d pers., agreeing with pules 
understood. 6 

The 5th clause has no connective. Its grammatical subject is sedem, 
which is limited by regiam. Its grammatical predicate is (esse) vacuam, 
the former being understood.** 

Sedem, a com. noun, 3d. dec, fem. gen., sing, num., ace. case. 6 

Regiam, a possessive adj., derived from rex, agreeing with sedem. 

Vacuam, an adj., agreeing with sedem. 

The 6th clause is connected to the leading clause by the concessive f 
conjunction etsi, to which the adversative e tamen corresponds in the first, 
clause. 

Its subject is the same as that of the leading clause. 

Its grammatical predicate is credebat, which is limited by satis and 
patribus. 

Credebat, a neut. verb,' 1 3d conj. [Principal parts, and formations of 1st 
root], act. voice, ind. mood, imperf. tense, sing, num., 3d pers., agreeing 
with pubes understood. 

Satis, an adverb of degree 1 ' modifying credebat. k 

Patribus, a com. noun, 3d dec./ masc. gen., 171 plur. num., dat. case, 
depending upon credebat, n and modified by the relative clause following. 

The 7th clause, which is connected by qui p to the preceding one, is in- 
troduced to show the situation of those senators at the time of the removal 
of Romulus. 

Qui is its grammatical subject, and is a relative pronoun, 9 masc. gen., 
plur. num., agreeing with patribus understood/ 

Steterant, a neut. verb, ft 1st conj., irregular in its 2d root* [Principal 
parts, and formations of 2d root], act. voice, ind. mood, plup. tense, 3d pers. 
plur., agreeing with qui. c 

■ Proximi, an adj. of the superlative degree' [Compare it], 1st and 2d dec, 
masc. gen., plur. num., nom. case, agreeing with qui, and also modifying 
steterant. u 

The 8th clause has no connective. It depends on the verb credebat. 
Its subject is eum, i. e. Romulum understood. Its grammatical predicate 
is raptum (esse) which is modified by sublimem and procelLA. 

Ravtum (esse), an act. verb, 3d conj." [Principal parts in both voices, 
and formations of 3d root in the passive], pass, voice, infin. mood, perf. 
tense with the meaning of plup., depending on credebat. 1 " 

Sublimem, an adj. of 3d dec. and two terminations, r masc. gen., sing, 
num., ace case, agreeing with Romulum understood, 5 ' and also modifying 
raptum esse. u 

Procelld, a com. noun, 1st dec.,* fem. gen., sing, num., abl. case. aa 



a 


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b l 


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« ft' -223. 

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5 109. 


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aa 


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§ 283. PROSODY. QUANTITY J GENERAL RULES. 259 



PROSODY. 

$282. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, 
and the laws of versification. 

QUANTITY. 

1 . The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. 

2. A syllable is either long, short, or common. 

A long syllable requires double the time occupied in pro- 
nouncing a short one ; as, amdre. 

A common syllable is one which, in poetry, may be made 
either long or short ; as the middle syllable of tenebrce. 

3. The quantity of a syllable is either natural or accidental ; 
— natural, when it depends on the nature of its vowel ; acci- 
dental, when it depends on its position. 

Thus the e in resisto is short by nature ; while in restlti it is long by 
accident, being followed by two consonants. 

4. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain es- 
tablished rules, or, in cases not included in the rules, by the 
authority of the poets. 

5. The rules of quantity are either general or special. The 
former apply alike to all the syllables of a word, the latter to 
particular syllables. 

GENERAL RULES 

§ 283. I. A vowel before another vowel, or a diph- 
thong, is short ; as, mens, pcitrm. Thus, 

Conscla mens recti famas mcndacla ridet. Ovid. 
Ipse etiam eximlce laudis succensus amore. Virg. 

So also when h comes between the vowels, since h is ac- 
counted only a breathing; as, nihil. See §2. Thus, 
De ritkllo nikil, in riihllum nil posse reverti. Pcrs. 
Exc. 1. Fio has the i long, when not followed by er ; as 
fiunt , fiebam. Thus, 

Omnia jam fient,fi£ri quae posse negabam. Ovid. 
It is sometimes found long even before er ; as, fierct (Ter.), fieri 
(Plaut.) 



26*0 PROSODY. QUANTITY J GENERAL RULES. § 283. 

Exc. 2. E is long before i in the termination of the geni- 
tive and dative of the fifth declension ; us, faciei. Thus, 
Non radii solis, neque luclda tela diei. Lucr. 
Bui it is short in spei, and both long and short in rei a.ndfidei. 

Exc. 3. A is long in the penult of old genitives in di of 
the first declension ; as, auldi, pictdi. 

So also are a and e in proper names in alus or elus ; as, Cdlus, Pom- 
pClus. Thus, 

iKthereum sensum, atque aur&l simplTcis ignem. Virg. 
Accipe, Pompel, deductum carmen ab illo. Ovid. 

Exc. 4. JT is common in genitives in ius ; as, unhis, UUus. 
Thus, 

Rhus et nitido stillent unguenta capillo. Tibull. 
Illlus puro destillent tempora nardo. Id. 
But in alterlus it is always short ; in allvs always long. 

Exc. 5. The first vowel of eheu is long ; that of Diana, Io, 
and ohe, is common. 

Exc. 6. In many Greek words, a vowel is long, though im- 
mediately followed by another ; as, 

de'r, Achdla, Achelous, dla, eos, Laertes, and words compounded with 
loos. See § 293, 3. So Greek verbs having long e or o (tj or w.) 

(1.) Words which, in Greek, are written with ei before a vowel, and in 
Latin with e or i, have the e or i long ; as, JEneas, Alexandria, Cassiopea, 
Clio, Darius, elegla, Galatea, Medea, Mausoleum, Pe?ielojjea, Thalia. 

Hence, most adjectives in eus, formed from Greek proper names, have 
the e long ; as, Cytheretis, Pclopeus. 

Exc. Academia, chorea, Malea, platea, and some patronymics and 
patrials in eis, have the penult common; as, JS'crels. 

(2.) Greek genitives in eos, and accusatives in ea, from nominatives in 
eus, generally shorten the e ; as, Orpheos, Orphea ; — but the e is some- 
times lengthened by the Ionic dialect; as, Ccpheos, Hionea. 

(3.) Greek words in ais, ois, aius, eius, oius, aon, and ion, generally 
lengthen the first vowel; as, JS'dis, Minois, Gralus, JYcrelus, Minotus, 
Machdon, Ixion. But Thcbdis, Simois, Phdon, Deucalion, Pygmalion, and 
many others, shorten the former vowel. 

Note 1. Greek words in aon and ion, with o short in the genitive, 
have the penult long; but with o long in the genitive, they have it short ; 
as, Amythdon, -donis ; Deucalion, -onis. 

Note 2. Greek proper names in eus (gen. eos), as Orpheus, always 
have the eu a diphthong in the original, and, with very few exceptions, in 
the Latin poets. 

II. A diphthong is long; as, durum, famus, Eubwa, 
Thus, 

Thcsduros ignotum argenti pondus et auri. Virg. 
lnfernlque lacus, JEaiicque insula Circa?. Id. 



^> 283. PROSODY. QUANTITY J GENERAL RULES. 2G1 

Exc. 1. Pr<B t in composition, is short before a vowel ; as, 
praustus, pr&acutus. Thus, 

Nee totS tamen ille prior pr&eunte carina. Virg. 
In Statius, and Sidonius Apollinaris, it is found Long. 
Exc. '.I. A diphthong, at the end of a word, when the next word begins 
with a vowel, is sometimes made short; as, 

Insula Ionio in magno, quae dira Celamo. Virg. 
Remark. U, followed by another vowel, is, in prosody, not considered 
ns a diphthong ; us, quatio, queror, wquor, lingua, sanguis. 

III. A syllable formed by contraction is long ; as, 

alius for aliius ; cogo for coago ; nil for nihil ; junior for jurenior. Thus, 
Tityre edge pecus, tu post carecta latebas. Virg. 

IV. A vowel naturally short, before two consonants, a 
double consonant, or the letter j, is long by position ; as, 
arma, helium, axis, gaza, major. Thus, 

Pdscrrc opdrtct oves dedftctum dicere carmen. Virg. 
Kcc mijrtits vincet corylos ; nee laurea Pheebi. Id. 
At nobis, Pax alma, veni, spicamque tennto. Tilnttt. 
Rarajnvant: primis sic major gratia pomis. Mart. 

Exc. 1. The compounds ofjugum have i short before j ; as, 
bijugus, qua driju gits. Thus, 

Interea bijtigis infert se Lucagus albia. Virg. 

Remark. The vowel is long by position when either one or 
both of the consonants is in the same word with it ; but when 
both stand at the beginning of the following word, the vowel is 
either long or short ; as, 

Tolle moras; semper nocult differre paratis. Lucan. 
Ferte citi ferrum; date tela; scandite muros. Virg. 
Ne tamen ignoret, quae sit sententid scripto. Ovid. 
A short vowel at the end of a word, before a double consonant or j, is 
not lengthened. 

Exc. 2. A vowel naturally short, before a mute followed by 
a liquid, is common ; as, agris, pharetra, volucris, poplitcs, 
cochlear. Thus, 

Et primo similis volucri, mox vera volucris. Ovid. 
Natum ante ora pdtris, pdtrem qui obtruncat ad aras. Id. 
Nox tenebras profert, Phoebus fugat inde tenebras. Id. 
Rem. 1. If the vowel is naturally long, it continues so; as, salubris, 
ambulacrum. 

Rem. 2. A mute and liquid render the preceding short vowel common 
only when they are such as may begin a Latin word, or a word derived 
from the Greek. In compound words, of which the former part ends with 
a mute, and the latter begins with a liquid, a short vowel before the mute 
is made long by position ; as, dbluo, obruo, sublevo, quamobrcm. 

Rem. 3. A mute and liquid at the beginning of a word seldom lengthen 
the short vowel of the preceding word. 



262 PROSODY. QUANTITY ; SPECIAL RULES. § 284. 

Rem. 4. In Latin words, a short vowel is rendered common only be- 
fore a mute with I or r ; but, in words of Greek origin, also before a mute 
with m or n; as in Atlas, Tecmcssa, Procnc, Cycrius. 



SPECIAL RULES. 
FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

I. DERIVATIVE WORDS. 

§ 284. Derivative words retain the quantity of their 
primitives ; as, 

animal, dnimdtus, from anima ; gemebundus, from gemere; fdmllia, 
from famulus ; mdternus, from mater ; propinquus, from prope. 

Rem. 1. Derivatives from increasing nouns of the seccfad 
and third declension agree in quantity with the increment of 
their primitives ; as, 

funebris, from funeris; virglneus, from virglnis ; saluber, from salv.iis. 
Rem. 2. In verbs, the derived tenses agree in quantity 
with the special root from which they are formed ; as, 

move~bam, movebo, moveam, mdverem, move, movere, movens, rnovendus, 
from wide, the root of the present, with 6 short; — mdveram, moverim, 
mdvissem, mdvero, mdvissc, from mov, the root of the perfect, with o long ; 
moturus and motus, from mot, the root of the supine, with o also long. 

Solutum and volfitum have the first syllable short, as if from s6luo,xoluo. 
So gSnui, genltum , as if from geno; and potui, from pods sum {possum). 

Aratrum, simulacrum, have their penult long, as derived from the supines 
ardtum and simuldtum ; monimcntum and iultium have their antepenult 
short, as derived from the supines monitum and inltum. 

Exc. 1. Perfects and supines of two syllables have the 
first syllable long, even when that of the present is short ; 
as, 

ve~ni, vidijfeci, from renio, video, facio ; cdsum, motum, visum, from cddo, 
moveo, video. But, 

(1.) These seven perfects have the first syllable short: — 5z5z, 
dedi } fidi (from Jindo) , scidi, steti, stiti, tuli. So perculi. 

The first syllable is also short before a vowel (§ 283) ; as, rui. 

(2.) These ten supines have the first syllable short : — citum 
(from cieo), datum, Uum, litum, quitum, rdtum, rutum, satum, 
situm, and stdtum. 

So also the obsolete futum, from fuo, whence comes futurus. 

Exc. 2. Reduplicated polysyllabic perfects have the first 
two syllables short ; as, 

cecini, tetigi, didici, from cano, tango, disco. Bui the second syllable is 
sometimes made long by position ; as, momdrdi, tetendi. 



<§> 285. PROSODY. QUANTITY ; COMPOUND WORDS. 263 

Cecldi (from cado) and plpedi also have the second syllable long. 

Exc. 3. The o in posui and position, is short, though long in pono. 

Exc. 4. The a in da, imperative of do, is long, though short in the 
other parts of the verb. 

Exc. 5. Desiderative verbs in urio have the u short, though, in the 
third special root from which they are formed, it is long ; as, canaturio 
from ccenatu, the third root of camo. So parturio, esurio, nupturio. 

Exc. 6. Frequentative verbs, formed from the third special root of the 
first conjugation, have the i short; as, clarnlto, volito. See § 187, II. 1. 

Exc. 7. Many other derivatives deviate from the quantity 
of their primitives. 

1. Some have a long vowel from a short one in the primitive. 
Such are, 

Deni, from decern. Lex (le"gis),/ro77i lego. Semen, from sgro. 

Fomes and } from Mobllis, from moveo. Stlpendium, from stips 

Fomentum, ) foveo. Regula, ) from (stipis). 

Humanus./rora homo. Rex (regis), 5 rego. Tegula,/roTO tego. 

Laterna, from lateo. Secius, from secus. 

Macero, from maceo. Sedes, from sedeo. 

2. Some have a short vowel from a long one in the primitive. 
Such are, 

Dic&x,from dlco. Molestus, from moles. Sagax,/rom sagio. 

Disertus, from dlssero. Na to, /rom natu. Sopor, from sopio. 

Dux(ducis),//-omduco. Noto, from notu. Vadum, from vado. 

Fides, from f ido. Quasillus,/rowi qualus. Voco, from vox (vocis.) 

Fragor, ) from 
Fragllis, y frango. 

Some other words might, perhaps, with propriety be added to these lists ; 
but, in regard to the derivation of most of them, grammarians are not en- 
tirely agreed. 

Remark. Some of these irregularities have, perhaps, arisen from the 
influence of syncope and crasis. Thus mobllis may have been movibilis ; 
motum, movitum, &c. 

Sometimes the vowel in the derived word becomes short by dropping 
one of the consonants which, in the primitive, made it long by position ; 
as, disertus, from dlssero. So, when the vowel of the primitive is short 
before another vowel, it is sometimes made long by the insertion of a con- 
sonant ; as, hlbernus, from hi ems. 

The first syllable in liquidus is supposed to be common, as coming from 
liquor or Uqueo ; as, 

Crassaque conveniunt liquldis, et liqulda crassis. Lucr. 



II. COMPOUND WORDS. 

§ 285. Compound words retain the quantity of the 
words which compose them ; as, 

aefi.ro, of de and firo ; ddoro, of ad and oro. So dborior, amovlo, dr- 
dOmfo, comldo, enitor, produco, suborno. 



264 PROSODY. QUANTITY ; COMPOUND WORDS. <§> 285. 

The change of a vowel or diphthong in forming the com- 
pound does not alter its quantity ; as, 

concldo, from cddo ; concido, from ccedo ; erlgo, from rego ; redudo, from 
claudo ; inlquus, from eequus. 

Exc. 1. A long syllable in the simple word becomes short in the follow- 
ing compounds : — agnltus and cognltus, from notus; dejero and pejero, from 
juro ; hodie, from hoc die ; nihilum and nihil, from hllum ; semisopltus, 
from sopio ; causidlcus, and other compounds ending in dicus, from dlco. 

Exc. 2. Imbecillus, from bdcillum, has the second syllable long. The 
participle ambitus has the penult long from itum, but the nouns ambitus 
and ambltio follow the rule. 

Exc. 3. Innuba, pronuba, and subnuba, from nubo, have u short; but in 
connubium, it is common. 

Exc. 4. final, in the compounds of do and sto, is common, though 
long in the simple verbs. 

Note. It may be observed, that prepositions of one syllable, which end 
in a vowel, are long (§ § 294, 295, and 297) ; those which end in a single 
consonant are short (§§ 299 and 301). 

Exc. 5. Pro, in the following compounds, is short : — pr6cella,procul, pro- 
fdnus, profdri, profecto, profestus, proficiscor, profiteor, profugio, profugus, 
profundo, profundus, pronepos, proneptis, propero, and protervus. It is 
common in procuro, prof undo, propdgo, propdlo, propino, and propulso. 

Rem. 1. The Greek preposition pro (before) is short; as, propheta. 
In prologus it is long. 

Rem. 2. The inseparable prepositions di and se are long ; as, 

diduco, sepdro. But di is short in disertus. 

Rem. 3. The inseparable preposition re or red is short ; as, 

remitto, refero, reddmo. But in the impersonal verb refert, re is long, 
as coming from res. 

Rem. 4. Except in prepositions, a, ending the former part 
of a compound word, is long ; e, i, o, u, and y, are short ; as, 

mdlo, qudpropter, trddo (trans do) ; nefas, valedlco, hvjuscemodi ; biceps, 
omnipotens, significo ; hodie, quandoquidem, philosophus ; ducenti, locuples, 
Trojugcna ; Polyddrus, Eurypylus, Thrasybulus. 

Exc. 1. A. In quasi, eddem, when not an ablative, and in some Greek 
compounds, a is short ; as, catdpulta, hexameter. 

Exc. 2. E. The e is long in credo, nemo, nequam, nequando, nequd- 
quam, nequidquam, nequis, ncquitia ; memet, mecum, tecum, secum, sese, 
vecors, vesdnus, veneflcus, and videlicet, (see § 295 ;) — also in words com- 
pounded with se for sex or semi ; as, s&decim, semestris, semodius; but in 
selibra it is found short in Martial. 

Note. The e in videlicet, as in vide, is sometimes made short. See 
§ 295, Exc. 3. 

E is common in some verbs compounded with facio ; as, Uquefacio, pate~ 
fado, rarefacio, tabefacio, tepefacio. 

Exc. 3. I. (1.) The i is long in those compounds in which the first 
part is declined, (§296;) as, qui dam, quivis, qullibet, quantlvis, quantl- 
cujique, tantldcm, unlcuique, eldcm, relpubllcai, qualicunque, utrique. 

(2.) / is also long in those compounds which may be separated without 



PROSODY. QUANTITY ; INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 265 

altering the sense, (§ 296;) as, ludlmagister , lucrlfacio, siquis, agri- 
cultural 

(3.) /, ending the former part of a compound word, is sometimes made 
long by contraction ; as, tibicen for tibllcen, from tibia and cano. See 
§ 283, III. 

(4.) J is long in bigce, quadriga, lltcct, scilicet. 

(5.) In idem, when masculine, i is long ; but when neuter, it is short. 
The i of ublque and utroblque, the second in ibidem, and the first in nunl- 
rum,, are long. In ubicumque, ubinam and ubivis, as in ubi, i is common. 

(6.) Compounds of dies have the final i of the former part long ; as, 
biduum, trlduum, merldies, quotldie, quotldidnus, prldie, postrldie. 

Note. In Greek words, i, ending the former part of a compound, is 
short, unless it comes from the diphthong ei, or is made long or common 
by position ; as, Callimachus. 

Exc. 4. O. (1.) In compounds, the final o of contro, intra, retro, and 
quando (except quandoquidem,) is long ; as, controversia, introduco, rctro- 
cedo, quandoque. O is long also in alioquin, ceteroquin, utroque, utroblque. 

(2.) is long in the compounds of quo and eo ; &s,qudmodo, quocunque, 
quominus, quocirca, quovis, quo que ; eodem, eone ; but in the conjunction 
quoque, it is short. 

(3.) Greek words which are written with an omega have the o long ; 
as, geometra, Minotaurus, lagopus. 

Exc. 5. U. The u is long in Jupiter and judico. The final u in the 
former part of usucapio and usuvenio is regularly long. See § 298. 



III. INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

<§> 286. 1. A noun is said to increase, when, in any of its 
cases, it has more syllables than in the nominative singular ; as, 
pax, pacis ; sermo, sermonis. 

The number of increments in any case of a noun is equal to 
that of its additional syllables. 

2. Nouns in general have but one increment in the singular. 
But iter, supellex, compounds of caput ending in ps, and sometimes 

jecur, have two ; as, 

1 2 # 12. 

iter, i-tin-e-ris ; anceps, an-cip-l-tis ; 

12 12. 

supellex, su-pel-lec-ti-lis ; jecur, je-cin-o-ris. 
The double increase of iter, Sec, in the singular number arises from their 
coming from obsolete nominatives, containing a syllable more than those 
now in use ; as, itiner, &c. 

3. The dative and ablative plural of the third declension 
have one increment more than the genitive singular ; as, 

rex, Gen. re-gis, D. and Ab. reg-i-bus. 

sermo, ser-mo-nis, ser-mon-i-bus. 

iter, i-tin-e-ris, it-i-ner-l-bus. 

4. The last syllable of a word is never considered as the in- 

23 



266 PROSODY. QUANTITY J INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

crement. If a word has but one increment, it is the penult ; 
if two, the antepenult is called the first, and the penult the 
second ; and if three, the syllable before the antepenult is called 
the first, the antepenult the second, and the penult the third 
increment. 

5. In the third declension, the quantity of the first increment 
in all the other cases is the same as in the genitive singular; as, 

scrmdnis, sermoni, sermdnem, sermone, sermdnes, sermdnum, sermdnlbus. 
Bdbus, or bubus, from bos, bdvis, is lengthened by contraction from bovibus. 

Note. As adjectives and participles are declined like nouns, the same 
rules of increment apply to all of them; and so also to pronouns. 



INCREMENTS OF THE SINGULAR NUMBER. 

OF THE FIRST, FOURTH, AND FIFTH DECLENSIONS. 

■§> 287. 1. When nouns of the first, fourth, and fifth declensions 
increase in the singular number, the increment consists of a vowel before 
the final vowel, and its quantity is determined by the first general rule 
with its exceptions. See § 283. 

INCREMENTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

2. The increments of the second declension are short ; 

as, 

gcner, generi ; satur, saturi; tcner, teneri ; vir, viri. Thus, 
O pueri ! ne tanta arnmis assuescite bella. Virg. 
Monstra sinunt : generos externis afiore ab oris. Id. 

Exc. The increment of Iber and Celtibcr is long. For that of genitives 
in ius, see § 283, Esc. 4. 

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

3. The increments of the third declension in a and o 
are long ; those in e, i, u, and y, are short; as, 

animal, animdlis ; audax, auddcis ; sermo, sermonis ; ferox, ferocis; 
opus, operis ; celer, ceteris; miles, milltis ; supplcx, supplicis ; murmur , 
murmuris ; cicur, cicuris. Thus, 

Pronaque cum spectent anbndlia cetera terram. Ovid. 

Hasc turn multiplici populos sermone replebat. Virg. 

Incumbent generis Iapsi sarcire rulnas. Id. 

Qualem virgineo demessum polllce florem. Id. 

Asplce, ventosi ceciderunt murmuris aura?. Id. 

Exceptions in Increments in A. 

1. Masculines in al and ar (except Car and Nar) increase 
short ; as, Annibal, Annihdlis. 



PROSODY. QUANTITY J INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 267 

Par and its compounds, and the following — anas, mas, vas (vddis), 
baccar, hepar,jubar, lar, nectar, and sal — also increase short. 

2. A, in the increment of nouns in s with a consonant be- 
fore it, is short ; as, Arabs, Ardbis. 

3. Greek nouns in a and as (adis, dnis or dtis) increase short ; 
as, poema, po'emdtis ; lampas, lampddis ; 31elas, Mcldnis. 

4. The following in ax increase short : — abaz, anthrax, Max, Atrax. 
climax, colax, corax, dropax, fax, harpax, panax, phylax, smilax, ana 
sly rax. 

Exceptions in Increments in O. 

1. O, in the increment of neuter nouns, is short ; as, 
marmor, marmdris ; corpus, corpdris ; ebur, eboris. But os (the mouth), 

and the neuter of comparatives, like their masculine and feminine, in- 
crease long. The increment of ador is common. 

2. O is short in the increment of Greek nouns in o or on, 
which, in the oblique cases, have omicron ; as, 

Aedon, Aedonis ; Agamemnon, Agamemnonis. Sidon, Orion, and 
JEgaion, have the increment common. 

3. In the increment of gentile nouns in o or on, o is gene- 
rally short; as, 

Macedo, Maceddnis. So, Senones, Teutdnes, &c. 

But the following have o long: — Ebur ones, Lacones, Tones, Nasamdnes, 
Suessones (or -idnes), Vettones, Burgundiones. Britoneshzs the o common. 

4. Greek nouns in or increase short ; as, Hector, Hectoris ; 
rhetor, rhetoris ; Agenor, Agenoris. 

5. Compounds of pus (novg), as tripus, polypus, and also arbor, memor, 
bos, compos, impos, and lepus, increase short. 

6. O, in the increment of nouns in s with a consonant before 
it, is short ; as, 

srrobs, scrobis ; inops, inopis. But it is long in the increment of 
cercops, Cyclops, and hydrops. 

7. The increment of Allobrox, Cappddox, and pracox, is also short. 

Exceptions in Increments in E. 

1. Nouns in en, enis (except Hymen), lengthen their incre- 
ment ; as, Siren, Sirenis. So, Anienis, Nerienis, from Anio, &c. 

2. Hmres, locuples, mansues, merces, and quies — also Ibcr, vcr, lex, rex, 
and vcrvex—plcbs, seps, and halcc — increase long. 

3. Greek nouns in es and er (except air and outlier) increase 
long ; as, magncs, magnetis ; crater, crateris. 

Exceptions in Increments in I. 

1. Verbals in trix, and adjectives in ix, increase long ; as, 
victrix, victricis ; fclix,fclicis. 



263 PROSODY. QUANTITY \ INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

2. The following 1 nouns in ix also increase long : — cervix, cicatrix, 
cm- nix, cotumix, lodix, matrix, perdu, phoenix, radix, and spadix. So also 

i vibicis). 

3. Greek nouns, whose genitive is in inis, increase long ; as, 
delphin, delpMnis; Saldmis, Salaminis. 

4. The following nouns in is increase long :—dis, vl is, lis, vis Nesis, 
Quiris, and Samnis. The increment of Psophis is common. 

Exceptions in Increments in U. 

1. Genitives in udis, uris, and litis, from nominatives in ws, 
have the penult long; as, 

pains, paludis; tellvs, telluris ; virtus, virtutis. But intcrcus, Ligus, 
and pecus, increase short. 

2. Fur,frux (obs.), lux, and Pollux, increase long. 

Exceptions in Increments in Y. 

1. Greek nouns whose genitive is in ynis, increase long ; as, 
Phorcyn, Phorcynis; Trachys, Trachynis. 

2. The increment of coccijx, bombyx, Ccyx, mormyr, and gryps, is 
long; that of Beoryx and sandyx is common. 

INCREMENTS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

§ 288. A noun in the plural number is said to increase, 
when, in any case, it has more syllables than in the ablative sin- 
gular. 

When a noun increases in the plural number, its penult is 
called the plural increment ; as, sa in musdrum, no in domino- 
rum, pi in rupium and rupibus. 

In plural increments, a, e, and o, are long, i and u 
are short ; as, 

bandrum, animdbvs, rerum, rebus, generorum, ambobus ; sennonibvs, 
lacubus. (But vis makes vires,) Thus, 

Appia, longdnim, terltur, reglna vidrum. Stat. 
Sunt lacrymae rerum, et mentem mortalia tangunt. Virg. 
Atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca virorum est. Hot. 
Portubus egredior, xentisqae fereritibus usus. Ovid. 



IV. INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

<§> 2S9. 1. A verb is said to increase, when, in any of its 
parts, it has more syllables than in the second person singular 
of the present indicative active ; as, das, dd-tis ; doces, do- 
ce-mus. 



mo-nes, 


au-dis, 


mo-ne-tur, 


au-di-tis, 


1 2 

mon-e-re-tur, 


1 2 

au-di-e-bas, 


I .2 s 

mon-e-bim-I-ni. 


12 3 4 

au-di-e-bam-I-ni. 



PROSODY. QUANTITY , INCREMENT OF VERBS. 269 

2. The number of increments in any part of a verb is equal 
to that of its additional syllables. In verbs, as in nouns, the 
last syllable is never considered the increment. If a verb has 
but one increment, it is the penult; and this first increment, 

through all the variations of the verb, except in reduplicated 
tenses, continues equally distant from the first syllable. The re- 
maining increments are numbered successively from the first; as, 

a-mas, 

i 
a-ma-mus, 

am-a-ba-mus, 

1 2 3 

am-a-ve-ra-mus. 

A verb in the active voice may have three increments ; in the passive, 
it may have four. 

3. In determining the increments of deponent verbs, an 
active voice may be supposed, formed regularly from the same 
root. 

1 ' - 

Thus the increments of la-ta-tur, liet-a-bd-tiir, <Scc, are reckoned from 

• the supposed verb lato, Itetas. 

<§> 290. In the increments of verbs, a, e, and o, are long ; 
i and u are short ; as, 

amdrc, monerc,facltdte, volitmus, regcbdvilni. Thus, 
Et cantdre pares, et respo?ulere paratb. Virg. 
Sic equldem ducebam ammo, rebarque futurum. Id. 
Cumque loqui poterit, matrem/«c^o^' salutet. Ovid. 
Scindltar interea studia in contraria vulgus. Virg. 
Nos numeros sinnus, et fruges consumere nati. Id. 

Exceptions in Increments in A. 

The Jirsl increment of do is short ; as, damns, ddbdmus, 
circumddre, circumddbdmus. 

Exceptions in Increments in E. 

1. E before r is short in the frst increment of all the pres- 
ent and imperfect tenses of the third conjugation, and in the 
second increment in ben's and here; as, 

rcglre (infin. and imperat.), regcris or rcgerc (pres. ind. pass.), rcglrem 
and regercr (imp. sub].) ; amuberis, amabirc ; monrbCris, moiubCrc. 

Note. Vcinn, vclis, &.c, from volo, have the e short, according to § 284. 

2. E is short before ram, rim, ro, and the persons formed 
from them ; as, 

amavtram, amaverat, amavSrim, monulrimus, rexcro, audiceri/is. 

Note. In verbs which have been shortened bv syncope or otherwise, 
e before r retains its original quantity ; Vi3,jle.ram for flevtram. 

For the short c before runt, in the perfect indicative, as, stetlrunt } 
eee Systole, § 3l>7. 

o; } * 



270 PROSODY. QUANTITY ) PENULTS. § 291. 

Exceptions in Increments in I. 

1. J before v, in tenses formed from the second root, is long ; 
as, pativi, audivi, qu&sivit, audivtmus, audiveram. 

2. /is long in the penult of polysyllabic supines from verbs 
whose perfects end in ivi ; as, pctitum, qucesitum. See § 284, 
Rem. 2. So also reccnsltus, oblitus. 

3. The first increment of the fourth conjugation, except in 
imus of the perfect indicative, is long ; as, 

audlre, audlrem, venlmus, but in the perfect venlmus. So in the 
ancient forms in ibam, ibo, of the fourth conjugation ; as, nutrlbat, 
lenibunt; and also in ibam and ibo, from eo. 

When a vowel follows, the i is short, by § 283 ; as, audluni, audle~bam. 

4. /is long in slmus, sltis, velimus, velltis, and their compounds; as, 
possimus, adsimus, malimus, nolimus, and nollto, nolite, nolitote. 

5. / in rinius and ritis, in the future perfect and perfect 
subjunctive, is common ; as, 

videritis (Ovid), dixeritis (Id.), fecerimus (Catull.), contigeritis (Ovid) ; 
egerlmus (Virg.). 

Exceptions in Increments in U. 
U is long in the increment of supines, and of participles 
formed from the third root of the verb ; as, 

secutus, soluius, secuturus, soluturus. 

RULES FOR THE QUANTITY OF THE PENULTIMATE AND 
ANTEPENULTIMATE SYLLABLES OF WORDS OF CER- 
TAIN TERMINATIONS. 

I. PENULTS. 

<§> 291. 1. Words ending in acus, icus, and icum y shorten 
the penult ; as, 

amardcus, JEgyptiacus, academicus, rusticus, tritlcum, viaticum. 

Except merdcus, opticus ; amicus, apricus, antlcus, flcus, lumbricus, 
mcndicus, posticus, pudicus, umbilicus, vlcus, picus, splcus, Ddcus. 

2. Words ending in abrum, ubrum, acrum, ucrum, and atrum, 
lengthen the penult ; as, 

candelabrum, delubrum, lavdcrum, involucrum, verdtrum, lucrum. 

3. Nouns in ca lengthen the penult ; as, 
cloaca, apothcca, lorlca, phoca, lactuca. 

Except alica, brassica, dica, fulica, raantlca, pcdica, perVlca, scuttca, 
phalarlca, sublica, tunica, vomica; and also some nouns in ica, derived 
from adjectives in leus ; as, fabrlca, grammatica, &c. So manlca. 

4. Patronymics in ades and ides shorten the penult ; as, 
Atlantiades, Priamides. 

Except those in ides which are formed from nouns in eus or es ; as, 
Strides, from Atreus ; JYcoclides, from Neocles ; except, also, Amplxiaraides, 
BelldeSf Amyclides, Lycurgidcs. 



§291. prosody. — quantity; penults. 271 

5. Patronymics and similar words in ais, eis, and ois, lengthen 
the penult ; as, 

Achats, Ckryseis, Mindis. Except Phocdis and Thcbdis. The penult of 
Nereis is common. 

6. Words in do lengthen the penult ; as, 

vddo, cedo,formido, rodo, tcstudo, altitudo. Except solido, modo. 
unedo, cddo, divldo, edo (to eat), spado, trepido. Rudo is common. 

7. Words in idus shorten the penult ; those in udus lengthen 
it ; as, callidus, perfidus ; ludus, nudus. 

Except Idus, fidus, infidus, nidus, sidus. 

8. Nouns in ga and go lengthen the penult ; as, 

collcga, saga, ruga, imago, callgo, cerugo. Except caliga, toga, har- 
pdgo, ligo, pldga, (a region), fttga, stega, ecloga, ego. 

9. Words in le, les, and Us, lengthen the penult ; as, 
crinale, mantele, ancile; ales, miles, proles; annalis, crudelis, civilis, 

curulis. — Except verbals in His ; as, agllis, amabilis ; — adjectives in atilis ; 
as, aquatilis, umbratilis ; — so also, periscelis, dapsllis, dactylis, gracilis, 
humilis, parllis, similis, sterilis, indoles, soboles, mugilis, strigilis, metrop- 
olis, oxdlis, parddlis, male. 

10. Words in elus, ela, clum, lengthen the penult ; as, pha- 
selus, querela, prelum. Except getus, gelum, scelus. 

11. Diminutives in olus, ola, olum, ulus, ula, ulum, also words 
in ilus, and those in ulus, ula, and ulum, of more than two syl- 
lables, shorten the penult ; as, 

urceolus, filiola, tuguriolum, lectulus, ratiuncula, corculum ; rutllus, 
garrulus, fabula. Exc. asllus. 

12. Words in ma lengthen the penult ; as, 

fdma, poema, rima, axioma, pluma. Exc. anvma, coma, lacryma, vic- 
tima, argema, hdma, propoma, thema. 

13. A vowel before final men or mentum is long; as, 
levamen, grdmen, crimen, flumen, jumentum, atrdmentum. 

Except tdrnen, columen, Hymen, elementum, and certain verbal nouns 
of the second and third conjugations ; as, documentum, regimen, tegimen, &c. 

14. Words ending in imus or ymus shorten the penult ; as, 
animus, finitimus, for tissimus, maximus, thymus. 

Except bimus, llmus, mimus, opimus, quadrimus, slmus, trimus, patrl- 
mus, matrlmus, and two superlatives, imus and primus. 

Note. When an adjective ends in umus for imus, the quantity remains 
the same ; as, decumus, optumus, maxumus, for declmus, &c. 

15. A, e, o, and u, before final mus and mum, are long ; as, 
ramus, remus, extremus, prdmus, dumus, pomum, volemum. 

Except atomus, balsdmum, cinndmum, domus, glomus, humus, postumus, 
thalamus, tomus, calamus, nemus, monogdmus. 

16. Words in na, ne, ni, and nis, lengthen the penult ; as, 
Idna, arena, carina, matrdna, luna, mane, anemone, septeni, octdni, ind~ 

nis, finis, immunis. Exc. advena, cottdna, ptisdna, destina, m\na, bene, 



272 prosody. — quantity; penults. §291. 

gena, sine, cdnis, cinis, juvSnis ; and the following in ina, — bucclna, domlna, 
fiscina , femina, fuscina, lamina, machina, pagina, patina, sarclna, trutina. 
So compounds of geno ; as, indigena, Majugena. 

17. Adjectives in inus, derived from names of trees, plants, 
and stones, and from adverbs of time, shorten the penult ; as, 

cedrinus, faginus, crocinus, kyacinthinus, adamantinus, crystallinus ; 
crastinus, diutinus ; also annotinus, bombycinus, and elephantinus. 

Other adjectives and words in inus lengthen the penult ; as, 
caninus, binus, festlnus, peregrinus, marinus, clandestinus, supinus. 
Except acinus, asinus, cophinus, domlnus, earinus, f acinus, fraxinus, 
pampinus, sinus, terminus, geminus, circinus, luscinus, minus. 

18. A, e, o, and u, before final nus and num, are long ; as, 

urbdnus, serenus, pronus, munus. Exc. limigenus, penus, abrotonum, 
peuceddnum, galbdnus, mdnus, ocednus, platdnus, tympanum ; ebenus, genus, 
tenus, Venus ; bonus, onus, sonus, tonus, tkronus, anus, lagdnum, popdnum. 

19. Words ending in pa shorten the penult ; as, 

aldpa, nepa, cripa. Exc. stupa, rdpa, ripa, cepa, scopa, cupa, pupa. 

20. Words in aris and are lengthen the penult ; as, 
aldris, altdre. Except hildris, canthdris, cappdris, and mare. 

21. Before final ro or ror, e is short; i, o, and u, are long; as, 
tempero, celero, queror ; spiro, 6ro,figuro, mlror. 

Except spero, foro, moror, voro, furo, saturo ; and derivatives from 
genitives increasing short; as, decoro, murmuro, &c. ; also per o, soror. 

22. Before final rus,ra, rum, e is short; the other vowels are 
long ; as, 

merus, hedera, ceterum; carus, mirus, morus, murus ; hara, spira, ora, 
natura, lorum. 

Except, 1. austerus, galerus, plerus, serus, severus, verus, pera, cera, 
panthera, statera, procerus, sincerus. 

Exc. 2. barbdrus, cammdrus, camurus, cantkdrus, chorus, forus, hellebo- 
rus, lamyrus, Idrus, nurus, phosphorus, plrus, pbrus (a passage), satyrus, 
scdrus, spdrus, tartdrus, torus, zephyrus ; amphora, anchor a, cindra, cithdra, 
lyra, mora, purpura, phiLyra, pyra, satira ; forum, gdrum, pdrum, sac- 
chdrum, suppdrum. 

23. Adjectives in osus lengthen the penult; as,fumdsus,per- 
nicidsus. 

24. Nouns in etas and itas shorten the penult; as, pietas, 
civitas. 

25. Adverbs in tim lengthen the penult, those in iter shorten 
it; as, 

oppiddtim, virltim, iributim; acriter. Except stdtim, affatim, perpetim. 

26. Words in ates, itis, otis, and eta, lengthen the penult ; as, 

nates, pendtes, vitis, mitis, caryotis, Icariotis, meta, poeta. Except 
sitis, potis, drapeta. 

27. Nouns in atum, etum, itum, utum, lengthen the penult; as, 
lupdtum, arboretum, aconitum, verutum. 

Except /return, defrutum, pulpitum, petoritum, lutum (mud), compUum. 



§ 292, 293. prosody. — quantity ; antepenults. 273 

28. Words ending in tus lengthen the penult; as, 
barbdtus, grains, boletus, facetus, crinitus, perltus, cegrotus, totus, 

argutus, hirsutus. 

Exc. cdtus, latus (-em), impetus, metus, vegetus, vetus ; anh/elitus, 
digitus, gratuitus, halitus, hospitus, servitus, spiritus ; antidotus, notus, 
quotus, totus (so great); arbutus, putus ; inclytus ; adverbs in itus, and 
derivatives from supines with a short penult ; as, habitus. 

29. A penultimate vowel before v is long ; as, 

cldva, oliva, dives, ndvis, clvis, papdver, pdvo, prlvo, ovum, prdvus, 
cestivus, fugitivus. 

Except avis, brSvis, gravis, Uvis, ovis; cavo, grdvo, juvo, Idco, Uoo, 
ovo ; dvus, cdvus,favus, novus, favor, pdvor, novem. 

30. Words ending in dex, dix, mex, nix, lex, rex, lengthen 
the penult ; as, 



codex, judex; lodix, radix; clmex, pumex; junix; ilex; car ex, 
Ex 



murex. Except culex, silex, rumex. 



II. ANTEPENULTS. 

<§> 292. 1. Adjectives in aceus and aneus lengthen the 
antepenult ; as, 

cretdceus, testdceus, momentdneus, subitdneus. 

2. Numerals in ginti, ginta, gies, and esimus, lengthen the 
antepenult; as, 

viginti, quadrdginta, quinqudgies, trigSsimus. 

3. O and u before final lentus are short ; as, 
vinolentus, fraudulentus. 

4. A vowel before final nea, neo, nia, nio, nius, nium, is long ; 
as. 

ardnea, linea, cdneo, munia, punio, Favdnius, patrimdnzum. 

Exc. castdnea, tinea, cuneo, maneo, mineo, moneo, seneo, teneo, igno- 
minia, luscinia, mania, venia, lanio, linio, venio, ingenium, genius, senius ; 
and words in cinium, as, lenocinium. 

5. Words ending in areo, arius, arium, erium, orius, lengthen 
the antepenult; as, 

areo, cibdrius, plantdrium, dicterium, censdrius. Except careo, vdrius, 
desiderium, impkrium, magisterium, ministerium. 

6. Adjectives in aticus, atilis, lengthen the antepenult ; as, 

aqudticus, pluvidtilis. Except some Greek words in malleus; as, 
grammdtlcus. 

7. /before final tudo is short; as, altitudo, longitudo. 

III. PENULT OF PROPER NAMES. 

§ 293. 1. Proper names of more than two syllables, 
found in the poets with the following terminations, shorten 
the penult ■ — 



274 



PROSODY. QUANTITY ; PENULTS. 



§293. 



ba, 
ca, 1 
la,a 

ena, 

be, 

ce, 4 



che, 
de, 

le,s 
pe,s 
re, 
al, 



il, 

on, 7 

o, s 

er, 9 

mas, 

ras. 



bus, 



lus,is 
mus, 17 



yruSj 

asus, 



usus, 

atus,2o 

itus, 21 

OtUS,22 

eus, 23 (monosyl.) 



1 . MarTca, Naslca, Ustlca. 

2. Eriphyla, Messala, Philomela. 

3. Alcmena, Amphisibena, Athe- 

ns, Cassena, Camena, Myce- 
nas, Picente, Sophence,Murena 

4. Berenice, Elyce. 

5. Eriphyle, Neobule, Perimele. 
(>. Europe, Sinope. 

7. Alemon, Cytheron, Chalcedon, 

Damasiton, lason, Philemon, 
Sarpedon, Thermodon, Poly- 
giton, Polyphemon, Anthedon 

8. Carthago, Cupavo, Theano. 

9. Meleager. 

10. Bessalis, Eumelis, Juvenilis, 

Martialis, Phaselis, Stympha- 
lis. 

11. Cercyros, Cotytos, Pharsalos, 

Serlphos, Peparethos. 

12. Benacus, Caycus, Granlcus, 

Mossyneci, Olympionlcus, 



les, yris, dus, 14 

anes, 

enes, 

lis," 

aris, chus, 13 phus, 18 osus, 
asis, 24 ges, 

Exceptions. 

Stratonlcus, Trivlcus, Numl- 

13. Ophiuchus. [cus. 

14. Abydus, Androdus. 

15. Cethegus. 

16. Names in -clus, -olus (except 
iEolus Naubolus) -bvlus (ex- 
cept Bibulus), Orbelus, Eu- 
melus, Gaetulus, lulus, Phar- 
salus, Sardanapalus, Stym- 
phalus. 

17. Some in dermis and phemvs ; as, 
Academus, Charidemus, Eu- 
phemus, Menedemus, Philo- 
demus, Polyphemus. 

18. Seryphus. 

19. Homerus, Iberus. 

20. Aratus, Casratus, Torquatus. 

21. Heraclltus, Hermaphroditus. 

22. Buthrotus. [Caphareus. 

23. Enlpeus, Meneceus, Olleus, 
24 Amasis. 



2. Proper names of more than two syllables, found in the 
poets with the following terminations, lengthen the penult 



ana, 1 


sa, 


num, 7 


tas, 


ina/ 2 


ta, 4 


turn, 


des, 9 


on a, 3 


tae, 5 


or, 8 


tes,io 


yna, 


ene, 6 


nas, 


tb,» 



nus,' y 
pus, 13 
irus, 14 
orus, !5 



urus, 
esus, lG 
isus, 
ysus, 



etus, 17 
utus, 
ytus, 13 
vus. 



1. Sequana. 

2. Aslna, Mutlna, Proserpina, 

Rasina. Rusplna, Sarsina. 

3. Axona, Matrona. 

4. Dalmata, Massageta, Prochyta, 

Sarmata, Sostrata. 

5. Galatse, Jaxametaa, Laplthae, 

MacetaB, Sauromatae. 

6. Clymene, Helene, Melpomene, 

NyctimSne 

7. Arimlnum, Drepanum, Peuce- 

danum. 

8. Numitor. 

9. Miltiades, Pylades, Sotades, 

Thueydfdes ; patronymics in 
des, (§ 291, 4,) and plurals in 
ades. 



Exceptions. 

10. Antiphates, Amodytes, Ceri- 
tes, Charltes, Eteretes, Eu- 
rybates, Ichnobates, Euerge- 
tes, Anaxaretes, Massageies, 
and all names in -crates. 

11. Dercetis. 

12. Aponus, Apidanus, Caranus, 
Chrysoganus, Cimmus, Cliba- 
nus, Clymenus, Cceranus, 
Concanus, Dardanus, Diadu- 
menus, Duranus, Earinus, 
Eridanus, Fuclnus, Helenus, 
Libanus, Morini, Myconus, 
Myrsinus, Nebrophonus, Ole- 
nus, Periclymenus, Rhoda- 
nus, Santonus,Sequani, Steph- 
anus, Telegonus, Terminus, 



§ 294. PROSODY.- — QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 275 

and names in -gonus and Carpophorus, Mastigophorus, 

-xenus. Phosphorus, Stesichorus. 

13. CEdipus. 16. Ephgsus, Vogesus, Volesus. 

14. Lamirus. 17. Iapetus, TaygStus, Venetus. 

15. Pacorus, and those in chorus 18. iEpytus, Anytus, Eurytus. 

and phorus; as, Bosphorus, Hippoly"tiis. 

3. The penultimate vowel of the following proper names, 
and adjectives derived from proper names, though followed 
by a vowel, is long. See § 283, Exc. 6. 

Alexandria, Alpheus, Achelous, Achilleus, Achillea, Amphiaraus, Am- 
phlon, iEneas, Arlon, Alcyoneus, Aloeus, Anchiseus, Atlanteus, Athlon, 
Amineus, Amphigenla, Amythaon, Antiochla, Bioneus, Cymodocea, 
Calliopea, Cassiopea, Cydoneus, Cssarea, Calaureus, Chremetaon, Cle- 
antheas, Cytherea, Deidamla, Didymaon, Dolicaon, Darius, Elei, Enyo, 
Eous, Echlon, Eleus, Endymioneus, Erebeus, Erectheus, Hyperion, Gala- 
tea, Giganteus, Heraclea, Hippodamla, Hypetaon, Iolaus, Iphigenla, 
Ixlon, Ilithyla, Imaon, Laodamla, Lycaon, Latous, Lesbous, Machaon, 
Mausoleum, Medea, Menelaus, Mathlon, Methlon, Myrtous, Orion, 
Orithyia, Orpheus, Ophyon, Pallanteum, Peneus, Penthesilea, Phosbeus, 
Pandlon, Protesilaus, Pyreneus, Sardous, Paphagea, Poppea, Tbalia. 

Note. Eus, in the termination of Greek proper names, is commonly 
a diphthong ; as, Briar eus, Ceneus, Enlpeus, Idomeneus, Macdreus, Mene- 
ceus, Meter eus, Orpheus, Penthesileus, Perseus, Theseus, Typhosus. § 283, 
Exc. 6, Note 2. But in those which in Greek are written eioq (eios), eus 
forms two syllables ; as, Alpheus. So also in adjectives in eus, whether of 
Greek or Latin origin ; as, Erebeus, Erectheus, Orpheus. 



QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 

A final. 

<§> 294. 1. A final, in words declined, is short; as, 
musa, templa, capita, Tydea. Thus, 

Musa mihi causas memora; quo numlne Iseso Virg. 

Exc A final is long in the ablative of the first declension, 
and in the vocative of Greek nouns in as and es; as, 

Musd,fu7idd; JEned, Palld, Jlnchisd. 

2. A final, in words not declined, is long ; as, ama, 
frustra, anted, ergd, intra. Thus, 

Extra fortunam est quidquid donatur amlcis. Mart. 

Exc. A final is short in eja, itd,quid, and mputd, when used adverbi- 
ally. It is sometimes short in the preposition contra, and in numerals 
ending in ginta ; as, triginta, &c. In postea, it is common. 

Jl final is also short in the names of Greek letters; as, alpha, 



276 PROSODY. QUANTITY OF FINAL, SYLLABLES. 

E final. 

§ 295. E final is short ; as, nate, jpatre^ ipse, curre, 
regere, riempe, ante. Thus, 

JnctpS, parvl puer, risu cognosclre' matrem. Virg. 

Exc. 1. E final is long in nouns of the first and fifth de- 
clensions ; as, 

Calliope, Tydide, fide. So also re and die, with their compounds 
quare, hodie, pridie, postridie, quotidie. In like manner Greek vocatives 
in e, from nouns in es, of the third declension ; as, Achille, Hippomene. 
The e is also long in the ablative fame, originally of the fifth declension. 

Exc. 2. E final is long in Greek neuters plural 3 as, cete, mele, pelage", 
Tempe. 

Exc. 3. In the second conjugation, e final is long in the 
second person singular of the imperative active ; as, doce, 
mone ; — but it is sometimes short in cave, vale, and vide. 

Exc. 4. In monosyllables, e final is long; as, 

e, me, te, se, ne (lest or not) ; but the enclitics que, ne, ne, ce, &c, as 
they are not used alone, have e short, according to the rule; as, neque, 
hujusce, suapte. 

Exc. 5. E final is long in adverbs formed from adjectives 
of the first and second declensions ; as, 

placide, pulchre, valde for vallde, maxlme ; but it is short in hene,maU, 
inferne, and superne. 

Exc. 6. Fere, ferine, and olie, have the final e long. 

I final. 
§ 296. J finai is long ; as, dorriini, fill, classi, doceri, 
si. Thus, 

Quid dorriiril facient, audent cirm talia fures. Virg. 

Exc. 1. / final is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, and ubi. 

In nisi, quasi, and cui, when a dissyllable, it is also common, but usually 
short. In utinam and utlque, it is short, and rarely in uti. 

Exc. 2. J final is short in the dative singular of Greek nouns of the 
third declension, which increase in the genitive ; as, Palladi, Minoidi, 
Tcthyi. 

Exc. 3. / final is short in Greek vocatives singular of the third de- 
clension; as, Alexi ; Daphni, Pari. But it is long in vocatives from 
Greek nouns in is, -entos ; as, bimoi. 

Exc. 4. / final is short in Greek datives and ablatives plural in si ¥ 
or, before a vowel, -sin; as, Drydsl, herotsl, Trodsln. 

O final. 
<§> 297. O final is common ; as, virgo, amo, quando. 
Thus, 

Ergo metu capiti Scylla est inimlca paterno. Virg. 
Ergo solliclto) tu causa, pecunia, vitas es ! Prop. 



<§> 299. PROSODY. QUANTITY OP FINAL SYLLABLES. 277 

Exc. 1. Monosyllables in o are long ; as, 6, do, pro. 

Exc. 2. O final is long in the dative and ablative singular; 
as, domino, regno, bono, suo, Mo, eo. 

It is also long in ablatives used as adverbs ; as, certo, falso, merito, ed, 
quo ; to which may be added ergo (for the sake of). 

Rem. 1. The gerund in do, in the later poets, has sometimes o 
short; a,s,vigilando. Juv. 

Rem. 2. The final o in cito is short : in modo, it is common, but short 
in its compounds ; as, dummodo, postmddd, &c. It is also common in 
adeo, ideo, postremo, sero, and vero. In illico, profecto, and subito, it is 
found short. 

Exc. 3. final is short in immd, and common in idcirco, porro, and 
retro. 

Exc. 4. final, in Greek nouns written with an omlga, is long; as, 
Clio, Dido ; Mho and Androged (gen). 

Note. The final o of verbs is almost always long in poets of or near 
the Augustan age ; they, however, shorten it in scio, nescio, and spondco. 
Later poets make the o short in many other verbs. 

U final. 

§298. 1. U final is long; as, vultu, cornu, Panthu, 
dicta. Thus, 

Vultu quo ccelum tempestatesque serenat. Virg 

Exc. Indu and nenu, ancient forms of in and non, have u short. U is 
also short in terminations in us short, when s is removed by elision ; as, 
content^ ', for contentus. See § 305, 2. 

Y final. 
2. Y final is short ; as, Moly, Tiphy. Thus, 

Molfl vocant superi : nigr& radice tenetur. Ovid. 
Y, in the dative Tethy, being formed by contraction, is long. § 283, III. 

B, D, Lj N 5 R, T, final 

§ 299. 1. Final syllables ending in b, d, I, n, r, and t, 
are short; as, ab,illud, consul, carmen, pater, caput. Thus, 

Ipse docet quid agam. Fas est et ab hoste doceri. Ovid. 
Obstupuit simul ipse, simul perculsus Achates. Virg. 
Nomen Arionium Siculas impleverat urbes. Ovid. 
Dum loquor, horrdr habet; parsque est meminisse dcloris. Id. 
Exc. 1. L Sal, sol, and nil, are long. 
Exc. 2. N. En, lien, non, quin, and sin, are long. 
Exc. 3. In Greek nouns, nominatives in n (except those in 
on, written with an omicron), masculine or feminine accusatives 
in an or en, and genitives plural in on, lengthen the final 
eyllable; as, 

24 



278 PROSODY. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. § 300. 

Titan, splen, Salamin, Orion, Phorcyn ; JEnean, Anchxs&n, Callidpen ; 
epigrammaton. 

Exc. 4. R. Aer, cether, and nouns in er which form their 
genitive in en's, lengthen the final syllable ; as, 

crater, ver. So also Iber ; but the compound Celtiber has its last sylla- 
ble common. 

Exc. 5. Far, lar, JVar,par, cur, and fur, are long. 

Rem. A final syllable ending in t, may be rendered long by a diph- 
thong, by contraction, or by position ; as, out, obit for abiit, amant. See 
§28$ II, III, IV. ' . ■ 

M final. 

2. Final m, with the preceding vowel, is almost always cut off, when the 
next word begins with a vowel. See Ect/dipsis, § 305, 2. 

Final syllables ending in m, when it is not cut off, are short ; as, 
Quam laudas, pluma ? cocto niim adest honor idem. Hor. 

Hence, the final syllables of cum and circum, in composition, are short ; 
as, comedo, circumdgo. 

C final 

3. Final syllables ending in c are long; as, dc, illilc. 
Thus, 

Macte nova virtute, puer ; sic itur ad astra. Virg. 
Exc. JYcc, donee, fac, are short, and sometimes the pronouns hie and 
hoc in the nominative and accusative. 

AS, ES, and OS, final. 
<§> 300. Final syllables in as, es, and os, are long ; as, 

pittas, amds, quits, mones, honos, tiros. Thus, 

Has autem terras, Itallque hanc littoris oram. Virg. 
Si modo des illis cultus, similesque paratus. Ovid. 
Nee 7io5 ambitio, nee amor nos tangit habendi. Id. 
Exc. 1. AS. As is short in anas, in Greek nouns whose genitive 
ends in ddis or ados, and in Greek accusatives plural of the third declen- 
sion ; as, Areas, Pallas, her das, lampadas. 

To these may be added Latin nouns in as, ados, formed like Greek 
patronymics ; as, Appids. 

Exc. 2. ES. Final es is short in nouns and adjectives of 
the third declension which increase short in the genitive ; as, 
hosjpes, limes, hebes. 

But it is long in abics, aries, Ceres, paries, and pes. 

Es, in the present tense of sum, and in the preposition penes, is short. 

Es is short in Greek neuters, and in Greek nominatives and vocatives 
plural from nouns of the third declension, which increase in the genitive 
otherwise than in eos ; as, cacoethes, Arcades, Trois, Amazones. 

Exc. 3. OS. Os is short in compos, impos, and os (ossis). 

In Greek nouns, os is short in words of the second declension (except 
those whose genitive is in o), in neuters, and in genitives singular; as, 
Uios Tyros (but Athos) ; chaos, epos, Pallados, Tethyos. 



§ 301, 302. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; FEET. 279 

IS, US, and Y$ 9 final 
§ 30 1 . Final syllables in is, us, and ys, are short ; as, 

turrls, milUls, amabls ; pectus, bonus, amdmiis ; Capys, Tethijs. 

Non apis inde tulit collectos sedula flores. Ovid. 
Serius aut citius sedem properamus ad unam. Id. 
At Capys, et quorum melior sententia menti. Virg 

Exc. 1. IS. Is is long in plural cases ; as, 
musts, nobis ; omnls, urbis, for omnes, urbes ; quis, for que is or quibus. 
Is is long in nouns whose genitives end in itis, inis, or entis ; as, 
Samnis, Saldmis, Simols. 

Is is long in the second person singular of the present indica- 
tive active of the fourth conjugation ; as, 

audls, nescls. So also in the second persons, fis, is, sis, vis, velis, and 
their compounds ; as, p'ossls, quamvis, malls, noils, &c. 

Ris, in the future perfect tense, is common ; as, vidSris. 

In the nouns glis and vis, and the adverbs gratis and j 'oris, is is long. 

Exc. 2. US. Monosyllables in us are long ; as, grits, rus, 
plus. 

Us is long in nouns of the third declension which increase 
long, and in the genitive singular, and the nominative, accusa- 
tive, and vocative plural of the fourth declension (§§ 89, Rem., 
and 283, III.) ; as, 

tellus, virtus, incus ;—fructus . But palus, with the us short, occurs in 
Horace, Art. Poet. 65. 

Us is long in Greek nouns written in the original with the diphthong 
ovq {pus), whether in the nominative or genitive; as, nom. Amathus, 
Opus, OZdtpus, tripus, Panthus ; gen. Didus, Sapphus. But compounds 
of pus (novg), when of the second declension, have us short ; as, polypus. 

Note. The last syllable of every verse (except the ana- 
psestic, and the Ionic a minore) may be either long or short, at 
the option of the poet. 

By this is meant, that, although the measure require a long syllable, a 
short one may be used in its stead ; and a long syllable may be used 
where a short one is required ; as in the following verses, where the short 
syllable ma stands instead of a long one, and the long syllable cu instead 
of a short one : — 

Sanguineaque manu crepitantia concutit arma. Ovid. 
Non eget Mauri jaculis, nee ami. Hor. 



VERSIFICATION. 
FEET. 

$ 302. A foot is a combination of two or more sylla- 
bles of a certain quantity. 



280 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; METRE. § 303. 

Feet are either simple or compound. Simple feet consist of 
two or three syllables; compound feet of four. 



I. SIMPLE FEET. 

1. Of two Syllables. 

Spondee, two long ; as, .fundunt. 

Pyrrhic, two short ; as, Deus. 

Trochee, or choree,. . . .a long- and a short ; as, drmd. 

Iambus, a short and a long ; as, irant. 

2. Of three Syllables. 

Dactyl, a long and two short ; as, corpora. 

Jlnapcest, two short and a long ; as, dominl. 

Tribrach, three short ; as, .fdcere. 

Molossus, three long ; as, coutendunt. 

Amphibrach, a short, a long, and a short; as, ... .amove. 

Amphimdcrus, or Cretic,a. long, a short, and a long; as, ... .cdstltas. 

Bacchius, a short and two long ; as, Cdt6n.es. 

Antibacchlus, two long and a short ; as, Romdnus. 

II. COMPOUND FEET. 

Dispondee, a double spondee ; as, cdnflixerunt. 

Proceleusmatic, a double Pyrrhic ; as, homlnlbus. 

Dilrochee, a double trochee ; as, comprobdvlt. 

Diiambus, a double iambus ; as, dmdverdnt. 

Greater Ionic, a spondee and a Pyrrhic ; as, correxlmus. 

Smaller Ionic, a Pyrrhic and a spondee ; as, properdbdnt. 

Choriambus, a choree and an iambus ; as, terrlf leant. 

Jintispast, an iambus and a choree ; as, ddhasisse. 

First epitrit, an iambus and a spondee ; as, amdverunt. 

Second epitrit, a trochee and a spondee ; as, conditdres. 

Third epitrit, a spondee and an iambus ; as, dlscordlds. 

Fourth epitrit, a spondee and a trochee ; as, ddduzistls. 

First pceon, a trochee and a Pyrrhic ; as, Umporlbus. 

Second pceon, an iambus and a Pyrrhic ; as, potcntid. 

Tliird pceon, a Pyrrhic and a trochee ; as, dnimdtus. 

Fourth pceon, a Pyrrhic and an iambus ; as, celeritds. 

Those feet are called isochronous, which consist of equal times ; as the 
spondee, the dactyl, the anapaest, and the proceleusmatic, one long time 
being considered equal to two short. 



METRE. 

<§> 303. Metre is an arrangement of syllables and feet 
according to certain rules. 

In this general sense, it comprehends either an entire verse, a part 
of a verse, or any number of verses. 



§ 304. PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION ; VERSES. 281 

Metre is divided into dactylic, anapcBstic, iambic, trochaic, 
choriambic, and Ionic. These names are derived from the 
original or fundamental foot employed in each. 

A metre, or measure, in a specific sense, is either a single foot, 
or a combination of two feet. In dactylic, choriambic, and 
Ionic metre, a measure consists of one foot; in the remainder, 
of two feet. 

VERSES. 

§ 304. A verse is a certain number of feet, arranged 
in a regular order, and constituting a line of poetry. 

1 . Two verses are called a distich ; a half verse, a hemistich. 

2. Verses are of different kinds, denominated sometimes, like 
the different species of metre, from the foot which chiefly pre- 
dominates in them ; as, dactylic, iambic, &c. ; — sometimes from 
the number of feet or metres which they contain ; as, senarius, 
consisting of six feet ; octonarius, of eight feet ; monometer, 
consisting of one measure ; dimeter, of two ; trimeter, tetram- 
eter, pentameter, hexameter; — sometimes from a celebrated 
author who used a particular species ; as, Sapphic, Anacreontic, 
Alcaic, Asclepiadic, &,c. ; — and sometimes from other circum- 
stances. 

3. A verse, with respect to the metres which it contains, may 
be complete, deficient, or redundant. 

A verse which is complete is called acatalectic. 

A verse which is deficient, if it wants one syllable at the end, 
is called catalectic ; if it wants a whole foot or half a metre, it 
is called br achy catalectic. 

A verse which wants a syllable at the beginning, is called 
acephalous. 

A verse which has a redundant syllable or foot, is called 
hyper catalectic or hypermeter. 

4. Hence, the complete name of every verse consists of three 
terms — the first referring to the species, the second to the num- 
ber of metres, and the third to the ending ; as, the dactylic 
trimeter catalectic. 

5. A verse or portion of a verse (measured from the begin- 
ning of a line) which contains three half feet, or a foot and a 
half, is called the triemimeris ; if it contains five half feet, or 
two feet and a half, it is called the penthemimeris ; if seven half 
feet, or three feet and a half, the hepthemimeris ; if nine half 
feet, or four feet and a half, the ennchemimeris. 

24* 



232 prosody. — versification; figures. >§> 305. 

6. Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which 
it is composed. 

In order to scan correctly, it is necessary to know the quantity of each 
syllable, and also to understand the following poetic usages, which are 
sometimes called 

FIGURES OF PROSODY. 

SYNALCEPHA. 

<§> 305. 1. A final vowel or diphthong is cut off in scan- 
ning when the following word begins with a vowel. This is 
called synal&plia. 

Thus, terra antiqua is read terr' antlqua ; Dardanlda infensi, Dardania" 
infensi; vtnto hue, venf uc. So, 

Quidve moror ? si omnes uno ordlne habetis Achlvos,.... Virg. 
which is scanned thus — 

Quidve moror ? s' omnes un' ordin' habetis Achlvos. 
The interjections O, Ticu, ah, proh, vec, vah, are not elided ; 

as, 

et de LatiA, O et de gente Sablni. Ovid. 
But 0, when not elided, is sometimes made short ; as, 

Te Cory don O Alexi ; trahit sua quemque voluptas. Virg. 
Other long vowels and diphthongs sometimes remain unelided, in which 
case they are commonly made short ; as, 

Victor apud rapldum SimO(' : nta sub Hid alto. Virg. 
Anni tempore eo qui Etesice esse feruntur. Liter. 
Ter sunt condtl imponere Pelio Ossam. Virg. 
tilauco et Panopccb, et Inoo Melicertce. Id. 
Rarely a short vowel, also, remains without elision ; as, 

Et vera incessu patuit ded. Hie ubi matrem.... Virg. 
For synalrepha at the end of a line, see Synapheia, § 307, 3. 

ECTHLIPSIS. 
2. Final ;??,with the preceding vowel, is cut off when the fol- 
lowing word begins with a vowel. This is called ecthlipsis. 
Thus, 

O curas hominum, O quantum est in rebus inane ! Pcrs. 
which is thus scanned, 

O curas homln' O quant' est in rebus inane. 
Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. Virg. 
This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets ; as, 

Corporiim ofheium est quoniam premere omnia deorsum. Liter. 

See § 299, 2. 
Final 5, also, with the preceding vowel, is sometimes elided by the 
early poets before a vowel, and sometimes s alone before a consonant ; as, 
content' atque (Enn.), for contentus atque ; omrilbu 1 rebus. (Lucr.) So, 
Turn lateralV dolor, certissiinu' nunciu' mortis. Lucil. 
For ecthlipsis at the end of a line, see Syjiapkeia, § 307, 3. 



§ 307. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION J FIGURES. 283 

SYNiERESIS. 

§ 306. 1. Two vowels which are usually separated, are 
sometimes contracted into one syllable. This is called syncer- 

esis. 

Thus, in such case, 

Phaethon is pronounced Phcethon ; alveo, alvo ; Orphea, Orpha. So, 
Aurea percussum virga, versumque venenis. Virg. 
Eosdem habuit secum, quibus est elata, capillos. Prop. 

(1.) Synaeresis is frequent in ii, iidem, iisdem, dii, diis, dein, deiiiceps, 
deinde, deest, delrat, deero, deerit, deesse; as, 

Praecipitatur aquis, et aquis nox surgit ab isdem. Ovid. 
Sint Maecenates ; non deerunt, Flacce, Marones. Mart. 

Cui and huic are usually monosyllables. 

(2.) When two vowels in compound words are read as one syllable, the 
former may rather be considered as elided than as united with the latter ; 
as, c in anteambulo, antelre, antehac, dehinc, mehercule, &c, and a in con- 
t.ralre. 

(3.) The syllable formed by the union of two vowels often retains the 
quantity of the latter vowel, whether long or short ; as, abiete, ariete, 
abiegnte, vlndemidtor, omnia ; genua, tenuis, pitulta, fluviorum, &c. In 
such examples, the i and u are pronounced like initial y and to ; as, abygte, 
omn-ya, tenwis,pitwita, &c; and, like consonants, they have, with another 
consonant, the power of lengthening a preceding short vowel, as in the 
above examples. 

In Statius, the word tenuiore occurs, in which three vowels are united 
in pronunciation ; thus, ten-wio-re. 

(4.) Sometimes, after a synaloepha or echthlipsis, two vowels suffer 
synaeresis ; as, stcllio et, pronounced stell-yet : consilium et, — consil-yet. 

(5.) If only one of the vowels is written, the contraction is called 
crasis ; as, rf% consili, for dii, consilii. 

DIAERESIS. 

2. A syllable is often divided into two syllables. This is 
called di&resis. Thus, 

aulal, Troia, silua, sutldent ; for aula, Trola or Troja, silva, suadent. 
So, 

iEthereum sensum, atque aural simplicis ignem. Virg. 
Et claro siluas cernes Aquilone moveri. Id. 
Gratnmattci certant ; et adhuc sub iudlce lis est. Hor. 
So in Greek words originally written with a diphthong ; as, elegSta, for 
elegla. 

SYSTOLE. 

$ 307. 1. A syllable which is long by nature or by posi- 
tion, is sometimes shortened. This is called systole ; as, 

vidVn, for videsne, in which e is naturally long ; satVn, for satisne, in 
which i is long by position ; — hddie, for hoc die ; multimodis, for multls 
modis. So, 

Ducere multimodis voces, et flecte're cantus. Lucr. 

(1.) By the omission of j after ab, ad y ob, sub, and re, in compound 



284 prosody. — versification; arsis and thesis. 

words, those prepositions retain their short quantity, which would other- 
wise be made long by position; as, dblci, ddlcit, oblcis, &c. Thus, 
Si quid nostra tuis adlcit vexatio rebus. Mart. 

In like manner, by rejecting the consonant of the preposition, aperio, 
dperio, omitto, &c, are formed by systole. 

(2.) The third person plural of certain perfects is said by some to be 
shortened by systole ; as, stetlrunt, tullrunt, &c. ; but others believe that 
these irregularities have arisen from the errors of transcribers, or the 
carelessness of writers. 

DIASTOLE. 

2. A syllable naturally short, is sometimes lengthened. This 
is called diastole. 

It occurs most frequently in proper names and in compounds of re; as, 
Priamldes, religio, &c. Thus, 

Hanc tibi Priamldes mitto, Ledaea, salutem. Ovid. 

Jleligione patrum multos servata per annos. Virg. 
Some editors double the consonant after re. 
Diastole is sometimes called ectdsis. 

SYNAPHEIA. 

3. Verses are sometimes connected together so that the first 
syllable of a verse has an influence on the final syllable of that 
which precedes, either by position, synaloepha, or ecthlipsis. 
See §§ 283 and 305. This is called synapheia. 

This figure was most frequent in anapssstic verse, and in the Ionic a 
minore. 

The following lines will illustrate i^s effect : — 

Preeceps silvas montesqae fugit 
Citus Actaeon. Sen. 
The i in the final syllable of fugit, which is naturally short, is made 
long by position before the following consonants. 

Omnia Mercurio similis vocemque coloremjue 

Et crines flavos Virg. 

Dissldens plebi numero beatorwm 
Eximit virtus. Hor. 
In the former of these examples, synapheia and synaloepha are com- 
bined; in the latter, synapheia and ecthlipsis. 

By synapheia, the parts of a compound word were sometimes divided 
between two verses ; as, 

si non offenderet unum- 

Quemque poetarum limse labor et mora.... Hor. 
Rem. The poets, also, often make use of some other figures, which, 
however, are not peculiar to them. Such are prosthesis, aphceresis, syncope, 

renthSsis, apocope, paragoge, tmesis, antithesis, and metathesis. See 
322. 

ARSIS AND THESIS. 

<§> 308. In pronouncing the syllables of verse, the voice 
rises and falls alternately at regular intervals. This regular 



<§> 309. PROSODY. VERSIFICATION J C^SURA. 285 

alternate elevation and depression of the voice is called rhythm. 
The elevation of the voice is called arsis, its depression thesis. 
These terms sometimes, also, designate the parts of a foot on 
which the elevation or depression falls. 

1. The natural arsis is on the long syllable of a foot : con- 
sequently, in a foot composed wholly of long, or of short sylla- 
bles, considered in itself, the place of the arsis is undetermined. 
But when another foot is substituted for the fundamental foot 
of a metre, the arsis of the former is determined by that of the 
latter. 

Hence, a spondee, in trochaic or dactylic metre, has the arsis on the first 
syllable; but in iambic or anapaestic metre, it has it on the last. 

2. The arsis is either equal in duration to the thesis, or twice 
as long. 

Thus, in the dactyl, — v-/ \^, and anapaest, w \~/ — , they are equal ; in 
the trochee, — \^, and iambus, w — , they are unequal. This difference in 
the duration of the arsis and thesis constitutes the difference of rhythm. 

3. The stress of voice which falls upon the arsis of a foot, is 
called the ictus. When a long syllable in the arsis of a foot is 
resolved into two short ones, the ictus falls upon the former. 

Note 1. Some suppose that the terms arsis and thesis, as used by the 
ancients, denoted respectively the rising and falling of the hand in beat- 
ing time, and that the place of the thesis was the syllable which received 
the ictus. 

Note 2. As the ancient pronunciation of Latin is not now understood, 
writers differ in regard to the mode of reading verse. According to some, 
the accent of each word should always be preserved ; while others direct 
that the stress of voice should be laid on the arsis of the foot, and that no 
regard should be paid to the accent. 

It is generally supposed that the final letters elided by synaloepha and 
ecthlipsis, though omitted in scanning, were pronounced in reading verse. 



CESURA. 

§ 309, Ccesura is the separation, by the ending of a 
word, of syllables rhythmically or metrically connected. 

Caesura is of three kinds : — 1, o? the foot; 2, of the rhythm,; 
and 3, of the verse. 

1. Caesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot 
is completed ; as, 

Silves- 1 trem tenu- 1 i Mu- | sam medi- 1 taris a- 1 vena. Virg. 

2. Caesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from 
the thesis by the ending of a word, as in the second, third, and 
fourth feet of the preceding line. 



286 PKOSODY. VERSIFICATION ; DACTYLIC METRE. 

Caesura of the rhythm allows a final syllable naturally short, to 
stand instead of a long one, it being lengthened by the ictus ; 
as, 

Pectori- 1 lus inhi- 1 ans spi- 1 rantia | consulit | exta. Virg. 
This occurs chiefly in hexameter verse. 

Ceesura of the foot and of the verse do not of themselves lengthen a. 
short syllable, but they often coincide with that of the rhythm. 

3. Caesura of the verse is such a division of a line into two 
parts, as affords to the voice a convenient pause or rest, without 
injury to the sense or harmony. 

The caesura of the verse is often called the ccesural pause. 
In several kinds of verse, its place is fixed ; in others, it may fall 
in more than one place, and the choice is left to the poet. Of 
the former kind is the pentameter, of the latter the hexameter. 

The proper place of the cssural pause will be treated of, so far as shall 
be necessary, under each species of verse. 

Remark. The effect of the caesura is to connect the different words 
harmoniously together, and thus to give smoothness, grace, and sweetness, 
to the veree. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

DACTYLIC METRE. 

<§> 310. I. A hexameter, or heroic verse, consists of six 
feet. Of these the fifth is a dactyl, the sixth a spondee, 
and each of the other four either a dactyl or a spondee ; 
as*, 

At tuba. | terrlbl- 1 lem som- 1 turn procul | aare ca- 1 noro. Virg. 
Inton- j si en- 1 nes Ion- 1 ga cer- 1 vice flu- 1 ebant. Tibull. 
LudSre' i quae vel- 1 lem c&la- 1 mo per- 1 mislt a- 1 grestl. Virg. 

1. The fifth foot is sometimes a spondee, and the verse in 
such case is called spondaic ; as, 

Cara de- 1 um sobo- 1 les mag- 1 num Jovis | mere- 1 mentum. Virg. 
In such verses, the fourth foot is commonly a dactyl, and the fifth should 
not close with the end of a word. Spondaic lines are thought to be espe- 
cially adapted to the expression of grave and solemn subjects. 

2. A light and rapid movement is produced by the frequent 
recurrence of dactyls ; a slow and heavy one by that of spon- 
dees ; as, 

Quadrupe- 1 dante pu- 1 trem som- 1 tu quatit | ungula | campum. Virg. 

Illi in- i ter se- 1 se mag- j na vi | brachia | tollunt. Id. 

Variety in the use of dactyls and spondees in successive lines, has an 
agreeable effect. Hexameter verse commonly ends in a word of two or 
three syllables. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; DACTYLIC METRE. 287 

3. The beauty and harmony of hexameter verse depend much on due 
attention to the ccesura. (See § 309.) A line in which it is neglected is 
destitute of poetic beauty, and can hardly be distinguished from prose ; as, 

Roma? | mcenia | terruit | impiger | Hannibal | armis. Enn. 

4. The caesural pause most approved in heroic poetry is 
that which occurs after the arsis in the third foot. This is par- 
ticularly distinguished as the heroic ccesura. Thus, 

At domus | interi- 1 or 1 1 re- 1 gali | splendida | luxu. Virg. 

5. Instead of the preceding, a caesura in the thesis of the 
third foot, or after the arsis of the fourth, was also approved as 
heroic ; as, 

Infan- 1 dum re- i glna 1 1 ju- 1 bes reno- 1 vare do- 1 lorem. Virg. 

Inde to- 1 ro pater | Mne- 1 as || sic | orsus ab | alto. Id. 
When the caesural pause occurs, as in the latter example, after the arsis 
of the fourth foot, another but slighter one is often found in the second 
foot ; as, 
Prima te- 1 net, 1 1 plau- 1 suque vo- 1 lat | j fremi- 1 tuque se- 1 cundo. Virg. 

6. The caesura after the third foot was least approved ; as, 
Cui non | dictus Hy- 1 las puer |( et La- 1 tonia | Delos. Virg. 

The caesural pause between the fourth and fifth feet is termed the 
bucolic csesura. 

Note 1. The caesura after the arsis is sometimes called the masculine 
caesura ; that in the thesis, the feminine or trochaic, as a trochee immedi- 
ately precedes. 

Note 2. In the principal csesura of the verse, poets frequently intro- 
duce a pause in the sense, which must be attended to, in order to deter- 
mine the place of the caesural pause. For in the common place for the 
X33sura in the third foot, there is often a caesura of the foot ; while, in the 
fourth foot, a still more marked division occurs. In this case, the latter is 
to be considered as the principal caesura, and distinguished accordingly ; 
as, 

Belli j ferra- 1 tos pos- 1 tes, 1 1 por- 1 tasque re- 1 fregit. Hor. 

II. The Priapean is usually accounted a species of hexam- 
eter. It is so constructed as to be divisible into two portions of 
three feet each, having generally a trochee in the first and 
fourth foot, and an amphimacer in the third ; as, 

O co- 1 Ionia | quae cupls || ponte | ludere' | longo. Catull. 
It is, however, more properly considered as choriambic metre, consisting 
of alternate Glyconics and Pherecratics. See § 316, IV. V. 

Note. A regular hexameter verse is termed PriapSan, when it is so 
constructed as to be divisible into two portions of three feet each ; as, 
Tertia | pars pa- 1 tri data | pars data | tertia | patri. Catull. 
See above, G. 

§311. III. A pentameter verse consists of five feet. 
It is generally, however, divided, in scanning, into two hemis- 
tichs, the first consisting of two feet, either dactyls or spondees, 



288 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; ANAP.ESTIC METRE. 

followed by a long syllable ; the last of two dactyls, also follow- 
ed by a long syllable ; as, 

Natu-| ree sequi- 1 tar || senrina | qUisquS su- 1 se. Prop. 
Carralnl- 1 bus vl- 1 ves 1 1 tempus in | omne me- 1 Is. Ovid. 

1. According to the more ancient and correct mode of 
scanning pentameter verse, it consists of five feet, of which 
the first and second may each be a dactyl or a spondee ; the 
third is always a spondee ; and the fourth and fifth are ana- 
paests; as, 

Natu- 1 rse sequi- 1 tur 1 1 sem- 1 ma quls- 1 que sue. 
Carmlni- 1 bus vl- 1 ves 1 1 tem- 1 pus in 6m- 1 ne rnSls. 

2. The caesura, in pentameter verse, always occurs after the 
penthemimeris, i. e. at the close of the first hemistich. It very 
rarely lengthens a short syllable. 

3. The pentameter rarely ends with a word of three syllables. In 
Ovid, it usually ends with a dissyllable. 

This species of verse is seldom used, except in connection with hexam- 
eter, a line of each recurring alternately. This combination is called 
elegiac verse. Thus, 

Flebllis indignos, ElegeTa, solve capillos. 

Ah nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit ! Ovid. 

§ 312. IV. The tetrameter a pribre, or Alcmanian dac- 
tylic tetrameter, consists of the first four feet of a hexameter, 
of which the fourth is always a dactyl ; as, 

Garrula | per ra- 1 mos avis | obstrepit. Sen. 

V. The tetrameter a posteriore, or spondaic tetrameter, con- 
sists of the last four feet of a hexameter ; as, 

Ibimus, | O soci- 1 I, c5mi- 1 tesque. Hor. 

VI. The dactylic trimeter consists of the last three feet of a 
hexameter; as, 

Grato | Pyrrha sub | antro. Hor. 
But this kind of verse is more properly included in choriambic metre. 
See § 316, V. 

VII. The trimeter catalectic, or Archilochian penthemimeris , 
consists of the first five half feet of a hexameter, but the first 
two feet are commonly dactyls ; as, 

Pulvis et | umbra su- 1 mus. Hor. 

VIII. The dactylic dimeter, or Adonic, consists of two feet, 
a dactyl and a spondee ; as, 

Rlsit a- I polio. Hor. 

ANAPiESTIC METRE. 

§ 313. I. The anapcBstic monometer consists of two ana- 
paests ; as, 

tJlulas- 1 se canes. Sen. 



§314. prosody. — versification; iambic metre. 289 

II. The anaptestic dimeter consists of two measures, or four 
anapaests; as, 

Pharetrce- 1 que graves | date see- 1 va ferd Sen. 

The first foot in each measure of anapaestic metre was very often 
changed to a dactyl or a spondee, and the second foot often to a spondee, 
and, in a few instances, to a dactyl. 

Anapcestic verses are generally so constructed that each measure ends 
with a word, so that they may he written and read in lines of one, two, 
or more measures. 



IAMBIC METRE. 

§ 314. I. The iambic trimeter, or senarius, consists of 
three iambic measures, or six iambic feet ; as, 

Phase- 1 lus ll- [ le, || quem | vide- j lis, hos- 1 pites Catull. 

The caesura commonly occurs after the fifth semi-foot. 

The pure iambic measure was seldom used. To give to this 
metre greater slowness and dignity, spondees were introduced 
into the first, third, and fifth places ; and in every foot except 
the last, which was always an. iambic, a long syllable was often 
changed into two short ones, so that an anapaest or a dactyl 
was used for a spondee, and a tribrach for an iambus ; as, 
Quo, quo | sceles- 1 tl ruT- 1 tis ? aut | cur dex- 1 terls.... Hor. 
Alitl- 1 bus at- 1 que cam- 1 bus homi- 1 clda Hec- 1 torem Id. 

Sometimes, also, a proceleusmatic was used in the first place for a 
spondee. The writers of comedy, satire, and fable, admitted the spondee 
and its equivalents (the dactyl and anapaest) into the second and fourth 
places, as well as the first, third, and fifth. 

II. The scazon, or cJioliambus (lame iambic), is the iambic 
trimeter, with a spondee in the sixth foot, and generally an 
iambus in the fifth ; as, 

Cur In ] thea- | trum, Cato, | seve- J re ve- 1 nlsti ? 
In Ide- 1 o tan- J turn ven- 1 eras J Qt ex- 1 Ires ? Mart. 
This species of verse is also called Hipjjonactic trimeter. 

III. The iambic tetrameter, or octonarius, called also 
quadratics, a measure used by the comic poets, consists of four 
iambic measures, subject to the same variations as the iambic 
trimeter (I.) ; as, 

Nunc hie | dies | aliam | vltam af- J fert, all- 1 6s mo- 1 res pos- 1 tulat. Tex. 

IV. The iambic tetrameter catalectic, or Hipponactic, is the 
iambic tetrameter, wanting the last syllable, and having always 
an iambus in the seventh place, but admitting in the other places 
the same variations as the trimeter and tetrameter ; as, 

Depren- 1 sa na- 1 vis In | marl | vesa- 1 men- | te ven- 1 to. Catull. 
25 



290 prosody. — versification; trochaic metre. 

V. The iambic trimeter catalectic, or Archilocliian, is the 
iambic trimeter (I.), wanting the final syllable. Like the com- 
mon iambic trimeter, it admits a spondee into the first and 
third places, but not into the fifth ; as, 

Voca- 1 tus at- | que non | voca- | tus au- 1 dit. Hor. 
Trahunt- 1 que sic- J cas mach- 1 Inee j carl- 1 nas. Id 

VI. The iambic dimeter consists of two iambic measures, 
with the same variations as the iambic trimeter (I.) ; as, 

FortI | seque- J mur pec- 1 tore. Hot. 
Canidl- 1 a trac- I tavit | dapes. Id. 
Vide- 1 re" prope- | rantes | domum. Id. 
The iambic dimeter is also called the Archilocliian dimeter. 

VII. The iambic dimeter hypermetcr, called also Archilo- 
chian, is the iambic dimeter, with an additional syllable at the 
end; as, 

Rede- 1 git ad | veros | timo- | res. Hor. 
Horace always makes the third foot a spondee. 

VIII. The iambic dimeter acephalous is the iambic dimeter, 
wanting the first syllable ; as, 

Non | ebtir | neque au- 1 reum Hor. 

This kind of verse is sometimes scanned as a catalectic trochaic dimeter. 
See § 315, IV. 

IX. The iambic dimeter catalectic, or Anacreontic, is the 
iambic dimeter, wanting the final syllable, and having always 
an iambus in the third foot ; as, 

TJt tl- J gris or- J ba gna- j tls. Sen. 

X. The Galliambus consists of two iambic dimeters catalec- 
tic, the last of which wants the final syllable. 

The first foot is generally a spondee or an anapaest ; the catalectic syl- 
lable at the end of the first dimeter is long, and the second foot of the 
second dimeter is commonly a tribrach j as, 

Super al- 1 ta vec- 1 tus A- 1 tys j | celerl | rate" mS- ] ria. Catull. 

The csesura uniformly occurs at the end of the first dimeter. 

TROCHAIC METRE. 

V*^I*}» Trochaic verses bear a near affinity to iambics. The addi- 
tion or retrenchment of a syllable at the beginning of a pure iambic verse, 
renders it pure trochaic, and the addition or retrenchment of a syllable at 
the beginning of a pure trochaic line, renders it pure iambic, with the 
deficiency or redundancy of a syllable in each case at the enG of the 
verse. 

I. The trochaic tetrameter catalectic is the most common 
trochaic metre. It consists of seven feet, followed by a cata- 
lectic syllable. In the odd places, it admits a tribrach, but in 
the seventh a trochee only. In the even places, besides the 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION J CHORIAMBIC METRE. 291 

tribrach, it admits also a spondee, a dactyl, an anapaest, and 
sometimes a proceleusmatic ; as, 

Jussus I est in- 1 ermis | Ire : 1 1 purus | Ire | jussus | est. Catull. 

Romu- 1 lleas | Ipsa | fecit |,| cum Sa- 1 blnls | nuptl- 1 as. Id. 

Danai- 1 des, co- 1 Ite ; | vestras || hie dl- j es quae- 1 rlt ma- 1 nus. Sen. 

The pure trochaic verse was rarely used. The caesural pause uniformly 
occurs after the fourth foot. The comic writers introduced the spondee 
and its equivalent feet into the odd places. 

The complete trochaic tetrameter properly consists of eight feet, all 
trochees, subject, however, to the same variations as the catalectic 
tetrameter; as, 

Ipse | summls | saxls | f Ixiis | aspg- 1 rls, e- 1 vlsce- 1 ratiis. Enn. 

II. The Sapphic verse, invented by the poetess Sappho, con- 
sists of five feet — the first a trochee, the second a spondee, the 
third a dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees ; as, 

Tnte- 1 ger vi- 1 ta3, || scele- 1 risque | purus. Hor. 
Sappho, and, after her example, Catullus, sometimes made the second 
foot a trochee. 

Those Sapphics are most harmonious which have the csesura after the 
fifth semi-foot. 

Note. In the composition of the Sapphic stanza, a word is sometimes 
divided between the end of the third Sapphic, and the beginning of the 
Adonic which follows ; as, 

Labi- [ tur rl- 1 pa Jove | non pro- | bante ux- 
orius | amnis. Hor. 

This occurs only in Catullus and Horace ; and it has been thought by 
some that such lines should be considered as one verse of seven feet, the 
fifth foot being either a spondee or a trochee. 

III. The Phalcecian verse consists of five feet — the first a 
spondee, the second a dactyl, and the three others trochees ; as, 

Non est | vlvere, | sed va- 1 lerS | vita. Mart. 

Instead of a spondee as the first foot, Catullus sometimes uses a trochee 
or an iambus. This writer also sometimes uses a spondee in the second 
place. 

The Phalcecian verse is sometimes called hendecasyllabic, as consisting 
of eleven syllables; but that name does not exclusively belong to it. 

IV. The trochaic dimeter catalectic consists of three feet, 
properly all trochees, but admitting in the second place a spon- 
dee or a dactyl ; as, 

Non e- 1 bur ng- 1 que aure- | um. Hor. 
Note. This measure is the same as the acephalous iambic dimeter 
(see § 314, VIII.), and it is not important whether it be regarded as 
iambic or trochaic. 

CHORIAMBIC METRE. 

§316. I. The choriambic pentameter consists of a spon- 
dee, three choriambi, and an iambus ; as, 

Tu ne j quSsierls, | scire* nefas | quern mihi, quem | tibl.... Hor. 



292 prosody. — versification; ionic metre. §317. 

II. The choriambic tetrameter consists of three choriambi, or 
feet of equal length, and a Bacchlus ; as, 

OmnS nemus | cum fiuvils, ] omne canat j profundum. Claud. 
In this verse Horace substituted a spondee for the iambus 
contained in the first choriambus ; as, 

Te deos 6-| ro, Syb&rln | cur properes | amando.... Hor. 

III. The Asclepiadic tetrameter (invented by the poet Ascle- 
piades) consists of a spondee, two choriambi, and an iambus ; 
as, 

Mace- 1 lias, atavls 1 1 edite reg- ] Ibus. Hor. 
This form is invariably observed by Horace ; but other poets sometimes, 
though rarely, make the first foot a dactyl. 

The caesural pause occurs at the end of the first choriambus. 
This measure is sometimes scanned as a dactylic pentameter 
catalectic. See § 311, III. Thus, 

MEece- 1 nas, ata- 1 vis ] | edite | regibus. 

IV. The choriambic trimeter, or Gly conic (invented by the 
poet Glyco), consists of a spondee, a choriambus, and an iam- 
bus; as, 

Sic te | diva potens | Cyprl.... Hor. 
The first foot is sometimes an iambus or a trochee. 
When the first foot is a spondee, the other feet are sometimes 
scanned as dactyls. Thus, 

Sic te | diva po- | tens Cypri. 

V. The choriambic trimeter catalectic, or Pherecratic (so 
called from the poet Pherecrates), is the Gly conic deprived of 
its final syllable, and consists of a spondee, a choriambus, and 
a catalectic syllable ; as, 

Grato | Pyrrha sub an- 1 tro. Hor. 

The first foot was sometimes a trochee or an iambus. 

When the first foot is a spondee, this measure is sometimes scanned as 
a dactylic trimeter. See § 312, VI. 

The Pherecratic subjoined to the Glyconic produces the Priapean verse. 
See § 310, II. 

VI. The choriambic dimeter consists of a choriambus and a 
Bacchlus ; as, 

Lydia" die | per omnes. Hor. 

IONIC METRE. 

§ 317. I. The Ionic a major e, or Sotadic (from the poet 
Sotades), consists of three greater Ionics and a spondee. 

The Ionic feet, however, are often changed into ditrochees, and a long 
syllable into two short ones ; as, 

Has, cum genu- 1 na compede, | dedicat c£- 1 tenaa, 
Saturng, ti- 1 bl Zollus, | annulos pri- j ores. Mart. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; COMPOUND METRES. 293 

II. The Ionic a minbrc consists generally of three or four 
feet, which are all smaller Ionics as, 

Puer ales, | tibi telas, | operosse- 1 que Minerva?.... Hor. 

COMPOUND METRES. 

<§> 318. Compound metre is the union of two species of 
metre in the same verse. 

I. The dactylico-iambic metre consists of a dactylic trimeter 
catalectic (§312, VII.) and an iambic dimeter (§314, VI.); 
as, 

Scribere | version- 1 los ] | amo- 1 re per- | culsum | gravL... Hor. 

II. The iambico-dactylic metre consists of the same mem- 
bers as the preceding, but in a reversed order ; as, 

Nives- 1 que de- 1 ducunt | Jovem : || nunc marS, | nunc silu- 1 33. Hor. 
Note. The members composing this and the preceding species of 
verse are often written in separate verses. 

III. The greater Alcaic consists of two iambic feet, and a 
long catalectic syllable followed by a choriambus, and an iam- 
bus ; as, 

Vides | ut al- 1 ta || stet nive can- 1 dldum. Hor. 
The first foot is often a spondee. 

The csesura uniformly occurs after the catalectic syllable. 
This verse is sometimes so scanned as to make the last two feet dactyls. 

IV. The dactylico-trocliaic, or Archilochian heptameter, con- 
sists of the dactylic tetrameter a priore (§ 312), followed by 
three trochees ; as, 

Solvitur | acris hi- 1 ems gra- 1 ta vice || veris | et Fa- 1 vonf. Hor. 
The caesura occurs between the two members. 

V. The dactylico-trocliaic tetrameter, or lesser Alcaic, con- 
sists of two dactyls, followed by two trochees ; as, 

Levia | personu- 1 ere | saxa. Hor. 



COMBINATION OF VERSES IN POEMS. 

<§> 319* A poem may consist of one or more kinds of verse. 

A poem in which only one kind of verse is employed, is 
called carmen monocolon ; that which has two kinds, dicolon ; 
that which has three kinds, tricblon. 

When the poem returns, after the second line, to the same 
verse with which it began, it is called distrophon; when after 
the third line, tristrophon ; and when after the fourth, tetrastro- 
phon. 

The several verses which occur before the poem returns to 
25* 



294 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; HORATIAN METRES. 

the kind of verse with which it began, constitute a stanza or 
strophe. 

A poem consisting of two kinds of verse, when the stanza contains two 
verses, is called dicolon distrophon, (see § 320, Syn. 3 ;) when it contains 
three, dicolon tristrdphon, (Auson. Profess. 21 ;) when four, dicolon tetras- 
trdphon, (Syn. 2 ;) and when five, dicolon pentastrophon. 

A poem consisting of three kinds of verse, when the stanza contains 
three verses, is called tricolon tristrdphon, (Syn. 15 ;) when four, tricolon 
tetrastrophon, (Syn. 1.) 

HORATIAN METRES. 

§ 320. The different species of metre used by Horace in 
his lyric compositions are twenty. The various forms in which 
he has employed them, either separate or in conjunction, are 
nineteen, arranged, according to the order of preference given 
to them by the poet, in the following 

SYNOPSIS. 

1. Two greater Alcaics (§318, III.), one Archilochian iam- 
bic dimeter hypermeter (§ 314, VII.), and one lesser Alcaic 
(§ 318, V.) ; as, 

Vides, ut alta stet nive candidum 
Soracte, nee jam sustlneant onus 
Silvce laborantes, geluque 

Flumina constlterlnt acuto. (Lib. 1, 9.) 

This is called the Horatian stanza, because it seems to have been a 
favorite with Horace, being used in thirty-seven of his odes. 

2. Three Sapphics (§315, II.) and one Adonic (§312, 
VIII.) ; as, 

Jam satis terns nivTs atque dirae 
Grandinls mlslt pater, et, rubente 
Dextera sacras jaculatus aices, 

Terruit urbem. (Lib. 1, 2.) 

3. OneGlyconic (§316, IV.) and one Asclepiadic (§316, 
III.); as, 

Sic te Diva potens Cypri, 

Sic fratres Helen©, lucld& sldera..., (Lib. 1, 3.) 

4. One iambic trimeter (§314, I.) and one iambic dimeter 
(§314, VI.); as, 

ibis Liburnls Inter altS navlum, 

Amlcg, propugnacula. (Epod. 1.) 

5. Three Asclepiadics (§ 316, III.) and one Glyconic (§316, 
IV.); as, 

Scrlberls Varlo fortis, et hostmm 

Victor, Ma76nil carminls aliti, 

Quam rem cumque ferox navlbus aut 6quis 

Miles, te duc6, gessent. (Lib. 1, 6^ 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION J IIORATIAN METRES. 295 

C. Two Asclepiadics (§316, III.), one Pherecratic (§316, 
V.), and one Glyconic (§ 316, IV.) ; as, 

Dlanam, te'ne'ra}, dlcite vlrgTnes : 
Intonsum, pugrl, dlcite" Cynthi'um, 
Latonamque supremo 

Dllectam pgnitus JSvi. (Lib. 1, 21.) 

7. The Asclepiadic (§ 316, III.) alone ; as, 

Mscenas atavls edlte" rgglbus. (Lib. 1, 1.) 

8. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.) and one dactylic 
tetrameter a posteriore (§ 312, V.) ; as, 

LaudabQnt alii claram Rhodon, aut Mitylenen, 

Aut Ephesum, bimarlsve Corlnthi.... (Lib. 1, 7.) 

9. The choriambic pentameter (§ 316, I.) alone ; as, 

Tu ne quaesierls, scire nefas, quern mlhi, quern tibi — (Lib. 1, 11.) 

10. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.) and one iambic 
dimeter (§ 314, VI.) ; as, 

Nox erat, et coelo fulgebat luna sereno 

Inter minura sldera. (Epod. 15.) 

11. The iambic trimeter (§314, I.) alone; as, 

Jam, jam efflcacl do mantis scientiae. (Epod. 17.) 

12. One choriambic dimeter (§316, VI.) and one choriambic 
tetrameter (§316, II.) with a variation; as, 

Lydia, die, per omnes 

Te Deos oro, Sybarln cur properas amando.... (Lib. 1, 8.) 

13. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.) and one iambic trim- 
eter (§314, I.)_; as, 

Altera jam teritur bellls clvllibus actas ; 

Suls et Ipsa Roma vlrlbus ruit. (Epod. 16.) 

14. One dactylic hexameter (§310, I.) and one dactylic 
trimeter catalectic (§312, VII.) ; as, 

DifFugerg nlves : rgdeunt jam gramma campls, 

Arborlbusque comse. (Lib. 4. 7.) 

15. One iambic trimeter (§314, I.), one dactylic trimeter 
catalectic (§312, VII.), and one iambic dimeter (§314, VI.) ; 
as, 

Petti, nihil me, slcut antga, juvat 
Scrlbere versiculos, 

Amore perculsum grSvi. (Epod. 11.) 

Note. The second and third lines are often written as one verse. 
See § 318, I. 

16. One dactylic hexameter (§310, I.), one iambic dimeter 
(§ 314, VI.), and one dactylic trimeter catalectic (§ 312, VII.) ; 
as, 

Horrida tempgstas ccelum contraxit ; et Imbres 
Nlvesque deducant Jovem : 
Nunc mare, nunc siluse.... (Epod. 13.) 



296 prosody. — versification; horatian metres. 

Note. The second and third lines of this stanza, also, are often written 
as one verse. See § 318, II. 

17. One Archilochian heptameter (§318, IV.) and one 
iambic trimeter catalectic (§ 314, V.) ; as, 

SoMtur acris hi ems grata vice verls et Favoni, 

Trahuntque slccas machinal carinas. (Lib. 1, 4.) 

18. One iambic dimeter acephalous (§ 314, VIII.) and one 
iambic trimeter catalectic (§ 314, V.) ; as, 

Non ebur neque aureum 
Mea renldet In domo lacunar. (Lib. 2, 18.) 

19. The Ionic a minore (§317, II.) alone; as, 
Mlserarum est neque amori dare ludum, neque dulcl.... (Lib. 3, 12.) 



§321. A METRICAL KEY TO THE ODES OF HORACE, 

Containing, in alphabetic order, the first words of each, with a 
reference to the numbers in the preceding Synopsis, where the 
metre is explained. 



m\, vetusto No. 1 

iEquam memento 1 

Albi, ne doleas 5 

Altera jam terltur 13 

Angustam, amlci 1 

At, O deorum 4 

Audivere, Lyce 6 

Bacchum in remotis 1 

Beatus ille 4 

Ccelo suplnas 1 

Ccelo tonantem 1 

Cum tu, Lydia 3 

Cur me querelis 1 

Delicta majorum 1 

Descende ccslo 1 

Dianam, teneras 6 

Diffugere nives 14 

Dive, quern proles 2 

Divis orte bonis 5 

Donarem pateras 7 

Donee gratus eram 3 

Eheu ! fugaces 1 

Est mi hi nonum 2 

Et tbure et fidlbus 3 

Exegi monumentum 7 

Extremum Tanaim 5 

Faune, nympharum 2 

Festo quid potius die 3 

Herculis ritu 2 

Horrlda tempestas 16 

Ibis Liburnis 4 



Icci, beatis No. 1 

Ille et nefasto 1 

Impios parrae 2 

Inclusam Danaen 5 

Intactis opulentior 3 

Integer vitas 2 

Intermissa, Venus, diu 3 

Jam jam efficaci 11 

Jam pauca aratro 1 

Jam satis terris 2 

Jam veris comltes 5 

Justum et tenacem 1 

Laudabunt alii 8 

Lupis et agnis 4 

Lydia, die, per omnes .12 

Maecenas atavis 7 

Mala soluta 4 

Martiis caalebs 2 

Mater saava Cupidlnum 3 

Mercuri, facunde 2 

Mercuri, nam te 2 

Miserarum est 19 

Mollis inertia 10 

Montium custos 2 

Motum ex Metello 1 

Musis amicus 1 

Natis in usum 1 

Ne forte credas 1 

Ne sit ancillae 2 

Nolis longa ferae 5 

Nondum subacta 1 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ', HORATIAN METRES. 



297 



Non ebur neque aureum . . . No. 18 

Non semper imbres 1 

Non usitata 1 

Non vides, quanto 2 

Nox erat 10 

Nulla.ni, Vare, sacra 9 

Nullus argento 2 

Nunc est bibendum 1 

O crudelis adhuc 9 

O diva, gratum 1 

O fons Bandusiae G 

O matre pulchra 1 

O nata mecum 1 

O navis, referent 6 

O soepe mecum 1 

O Venus, reglna 2 

Odi profanum 1 

Otium Divos 2 

Parcius junctas 2 

Parous Deorum 1 

Parentis olim 4 

Pastor quum traheret 5 

Percicos odi, puer 2 

Petti, nihil me 15 

Phoebe, silvarumque 2 

Phoebus volentem 1 

Pindarum quisquis 2 

Poscimur : siquid 2 

Quce cura patrum 1 

Qualem ministrum 1 



Quando repostum No. 4 

Quantum distet ab Inacho 3 

Quern tu, Melpomene 3 

Quern virum aut heroa 2 

Quid bellicosus 1 

Quid dedicatum 1 

Quid fles, Asterie 6 

Quid immerentes 4 

Quid obseratis 11 

Quid tibi vis 8 

Quis desiderio 5 

Quis multa gracilis 6 

Quo me, Bacche 3 

Quo, quo, scelesti rultis 4 

Rectius vives 2 

Rogare longo 4 

Scriberis Vario 5 

Septlmi, Gades 2 

Sic te Diva potens 3 

Solvitur acris hiems 17 

Te maris et terrae 8 

Tu ne quaesieris 9 

Tyrrhena regum 1 

Ulla si juris 2 

Uxor pauperis Ihj ci 3 

Velox amoenum 1 

Vides, ut alta 1 

Vile potabis 2 

Vitas hinnuleo 6 

Vixi puellis 1 



298 APPENDIX. GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. § 323. 



APPENDIX- 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 

<§> 322. Certain deviations from the regular form and 
construction of words, are called grammatical figures. These 
may relate either to Orthography and Etymology, or to Syntax. 

I. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY. 

These are distinguished by the general name of metaplasm. 

1. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or syllable to a word ; as, gna- 
lus, for natiLS ; tetiili, for tuli. Yet these were anciently the customary 
forms, from which those now in use were formed by aphsresis. 

2. Apharesis is the taking of a letter or syllable from the beginning of 
a word ; as, 'st , for est ; rhabonem, for arrhabonem. 

3. Epenthesis is the insertion of a letter or syllable in the middle of a 
word ; as, alituum, for alitum. 

4. Syncope is the omission of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word, 
as, deum, for deorum ; meum factum, for meorum factorum ; scecla, for 
scecula ; flesti, for fievisti ; repostus, for repositus ; aspris, for asperis. 

5. Crasis is the contraction of two vowels into one ; as, cogo, for codgo ; 
nil, for nihil. 

6. Paragoge is the addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; 
as, med, for me ; claudier, for claudi. 

7. Apocope is the omission of the final letter or syllable of a word ; as, 
men, for mene ; Antoni, for Antonii. 

8. Antithesis is the substitution of one letter for another ; as, olli, for 
illi ; optumus, for optlmus ; officio, for adficio. is often thus used for u, 
especially after v; as, voltus, for vultus ; scrvom, for servum. So after 
qu ; as, cequom, for aquum. 

9. Metathesis is the changing of the order of letters in a word ; as, 
pistris, for pristis. 

II. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

<§> 323. The figures of Syntax are ellipsis, pleonasm, 
enalldge, and hyperbaton. 

I. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words in a sen- 
tence ; as, 

Aiunt, sc. homines. Darius Hystaspis, sc.filius. Cano, sc. ego. Quid 
multa? sc. dicam. Ex quo, sc. tempore. Ferlna, sc. caro. 

Ellipsis includes asyndeton, zeugma, syllepsis, prolepsis, 
and synecdoche. 



§ 323. APPENDIX. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 299 

(1.) Asyndeton is the omission of a conjunction ; as, ahiit, cxcessit, 
evdsit, erupit, sc. et. Cic. 

(2.) Zeugma is the uniting of two nouns, or two infinitives, to a verb, 
which is applicable only to one of them ; as, Pacem an helium gerens 
(Sail.), where gerens is applicable to helium only. Semperne in sanguine, 
jerro, fugd versablmur ? (Id.) where the verb does not properly apply to 
ferro. 

Nego is often thus used with two propositions, one of which is affirma- 
tive ; as, Negant Casarem mansurum, post.ulatdque interposlta esse, for 
dicur.tque postuldta.... Cic. 

When an adjective or verb, referring to two or more nouns, agrees with 
one, and is understood with the rest, the construction is also sometimes 
called zeugma ; as, Et genus, et virtus, nisi cum re, vilior algd est. Hor. 
Caper tibi salvus et hcedi. Virg. Quamvis ille niger, quamvis tu Candida 
esses. Id. 

(3.) Syllepsis is when an adjective or^verb, belonging to two or more 
nouns of different genders, persons, or numbers, agrees with one rather 
than another ; as, Attoniti novitdte pavent Baucis, timidusque Philemon. 
Ovid Procumblt uterque pronus humi, i. e. Deucalion et Pyrrha. Id. — 
Sustulimus manus et ego et Balbus. Cic. So, Ipse cum fratre adesse jussi 
sumus. Id. — Projectisque amiculo et Uteris. Curt. See § § 205, Rem. 2, 
and 209, Rem. 12, (3,) and (7.) 

Zeugma, in the latter sense above mentioned, is by some included under 
syllepsis. 

(4.) Prolepsis is when the parts, differing in number or person from the 
whole, are placed after it, the verb or adjective not being repeated ; as, 
Princlpes utrinque pugnam ciebant, ah Sabinis Mettius Curtius, ah Romdnis 
Hostus Hostilius. Liv. Boni quoniam convenimus ambo, tu caldmos infldre, 
ego dicere versus. Virg. 

(5.) Synecdoche is the use of an accusative of the part affected, instead 
of an ablative ; as, Expleri mentem nequit. Virg. See § 234, II. 

2. Pleonasm is using a greater number of words than is ne- 
cessary to express the meaning ; as, 

Sic ore locuta est. Virg. Qui magis vere vincere quam diu imperdre 
malit. Liv. JYemo unus. Cic. Forte fortuna. Id. Prudens sciens. Ter. 

Under pleonasm are included parelcon, polysyndeton, hendi- 
ddys, and periphrasis. 

(1.) Pare! con is the addition of an unnecessary syllable or particle to 
pronouns, verbs, or adverbs ; as, egomet, agedum, fortassean. Such addi- 
tions, however, usually modify the meaning in some degree. 

(2.) Polysyndeton is a redundancy of conjunctions ; as, Una Eurusque 
Notusque ruunt creberque procellis Afrlcus. Virg. 

(3.) Hendiddys is the expression of an idea by two nouns connected by 
et,-que, or atque, instead of a noun and a limiting adjective or genitive; as, 
Pateris libdmus et auro, for aureis pateris. Virg. Libro et silvestri subere 
clausam, for libro suberis. Id. Cristis et auro. Ovid. Met. Ill, 32. 

(4.) Periphrasis is a circuitous mode of expression ; as, Teneri foetus 
ovium, i. e. agni. Virg. 

3. Enalldge is a change of words, or a substitution of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice of the same 
word for another. 



300 APPENDIX. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. § 323. 

Enallage includes antimeria, heterosis, antiptosis, synesis, 
and anacoliithon. 

(1.) Antimeria is the use of one part of speech for another; as, Nostrum 
istud vivere triste, for nostra vita. Pers. Aliud eras. Id. Conjugium 
videbit? for conjugem. Virg. Placltam pad nutrltor ollvam, for nutrito. Id. 

(2.) Heterosis is the use of one form of a noun, pronoun, verb, &c, for 
another ; as, Ego quoque una pereo, quod mihi est carius, for qui viihi sum 
carior. Ter. Romanus prcrtio victor, for Romdni victor es. Liv. Many- 
words are used by the poets in the plural instead of the singular ; as, colla, 
corda, ora, &c. See § 98. Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, for sus- 
tulisset. Hor. 

(3.) Antiptosis is the use of one case for another ; as, Cui nunc cogno- 
men Iulo, for lulus. Virg. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis, for te esse uxo- 
rem. Hor. 

(4.) Synesis, or synthesis, is adapting the construction to the sense of a 
word, rather than to its gender or number ; as, Subeunt Tegcea juventus 
auxilio tardi. Stat. Concursus populi mirantium quid rei est. Liv. Pars 
in crucem acti. Sail. Ubi illic est scelus, qui me perdldit ? Ter. Id mea 
minime refert, qui sum natu maximus. Id. See also § 206, (12.) 

(5.) Anacoliithon is when the latter part of a sentence does not agree 
in construction with the former ; as, Nam nos omnes, quibus est alicunde 
aliquis objectus labos, omnc quod est intcrea tempus, priusquam id rescltvm 
est, lucro est. Ter. In this example, the writer began as if he intended to 
say lucro habemus, and ended as if he had said nobis omnibus. 

4. Hyperbaton is a transgression of the usual order of words 
or clauses. 

Hyperbaton includes anastrophe, hysteron proteron, hypal- 
lage, synchysis, tmesis, and parenthesis. 

(1.) Anastrojjhe is an inversion of the order of two words; as, Trans- 
tra per ct remos, for per transtra. Virg. Collo dare brachia circum, for cir- 
cumddre. Id. Nox erit una super, for supererit. Ovid. Et facit are, for 
arcfacit. Lucr. 

(2.) Hysteron proteron is reversing the natural order of the sense ; as, 
Moridmur, et in media arma rudmus. Virg. Valet atque vivit. Ter. 

(3.) Hypalldge is an interchange of constructions ; as, In novafert ani- 
mus mutdtas dicere formas corpora, for corpora mutdta in novas formas. 
Ovid. Dare classibus Austros, for dare classes Austris. Virg. 

(4.) Sijnchpsis, is a confused position of words ; as, Saxa vocant Itdli, 
mediis qua in fluctibus, aras, for quae saxa in mediis fluctibus, Itdli vocant 
aras. Virg. 

(5.) Tmesis is the separation of the parts of a compound word ; as, 
Scptcm subjecta trioni gens, for scptentrioni. Virg. Quce vie cunque vocant 
terrce. Id. Per mihi, per, inquavi, gratumfeceris. Cic. 

(G.) Parenthesis is the insertion of a word or words in a sentence 
which interrupt the natural connection ; as, Tityre dum redeo, (brevis est 
via,) pasce capcllas. Virg. 

Remark. To the above may be added archaism and Hel- 
lenism, which belong both to the figures of etymology and to 
those of syntax. 

(1.) Archaism is the use of ancient forms or constructions ; as, aulai 



APPENDIX. TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 301 

for aula ; sendti, for sendtus ; fuat, for sit ; prohibesso, for -proldbue.ro ; im- 
petrassere, for impetraturum esse; farler, forfari; nenu, for non ; endo, for 

in; Oplram abutltur, for opgrd. Ter. Quid tibi hanc curat io est rem ? 

Plaut. 

(2.) Hellenism is the use of Greek forms or constructions ; as, Helene, 
for Hellna ; Jlnllphon, for Antlpho ; aurds (gen.), for aura; Pallddos, 
Palldda, for Pallddis, Pallddem ; Trodsin, Troddas, for Troadlbus, Trod- 
des ; Mstineto irdrum. Hor. Tempus desistere pugnce. Virg. 

y o3&4. To the grammatical figures may not improperly be sub- 
joined certain others, which are often referred to in philological works, and 
which are called 



TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A rhetorical figure is a mode of expression different from the direct and 
simple way of expressing the same sense. The turning of a word from 
its original and customary meaning, is called a trope. 

1. A metaphor is the transferring of a word from the object to which it 
properly belongs, and applying it to another, to which that object lias some 
analogy ; as, Ridet ager, The field smiles. Virg. JEtas aurea, The golden 
age. Ovid. 

Catachresis is a bold or harsh metaphor ; as, Vir grcgis ipse caper. Virg. 
Eurus per Siculas equitavit undas. Hor. 

2. Metonymy is substituting the name of an object for that of another 
to which it has a certain relation ; as the cause for the effect, the container 
for what is contained, the property for the substance, the sign for the thing 
signified, and their contraries ; the parts of the body for certain affections, 
&c. ; as, Amor duri Martis, i. e. belli. Virg. Pallida mors. Hor. Hausit 
pateram, i. e. vinum. Virg. Vina coronant, i. e. pateram. Id. JYecte 
tcrnos colores, i. e. tria jila diver si color is. Id. Cedant arma togs, i. e. 
bellumpaci. Cic. Sa^cula mitcscent, i. e. homines in saculis. Virg. Vivat 
Pacuvius vel Nestora totum. Juv. 

3. Synecdoche is putting a genus for a species, a whole for a part, a sin- 
gular for a plural, and their contraries ; also the material for the thing 
made of it; as, Mortdles, for homines. Virg. Fon tern ferebant. Id. Tec- 
tum, for domus. Id. Armdto millte complent, for armdtis militlbus. Id. 
Ferrum, for gladius. 

4. Irony is the intentional use of words which express a sense contrary 
to that which the writer or speaker means to convey ; as, Salve, bone vir, 
curdsti prob6. Ter. Egregiam verb laudem, et spolia ampla refertis, tuque, 
puerque tuus. Virg. 

5. Hyperbole is the magnifying or diminishing of a thing beyond the 
truth; as, Ipse arduus, altdque pulsat sidera. Virg. Ocior Euro. Id. 

G. Metalepsis is the including of several tropes in one word ; as, Post 
aliquot aristas. Virg. Here aristas is put for messes, this for estates, and 
this for annos. 

7. Allegory is a consistent series of metaphors, designed to illustrate one 
subject by another; as, Claudlte jam, rivos,pueri: sat prata biberant. Virg. 
O navis, referent in mare te novifuctus. Hor. 

An obscure allegory or riddle is called an aenigma. 

6. Jlntonomasia is using a proper noun for a common one, and the con- 
trary ; as, Irus et est subito, qui modo Cru:sus erat, for pauper and divcSy 
Ovid. So, by periphrasis, putor Rhoddni, for Galius. Ilor. 

v>0 



302 APPENDIX. TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

9. Litotes is a mode of expressing something by denying the contrary ; 
as, Kon laudo, I blame. Ter. Non innoxia verba. Virg. 

10. Antiphrdsis is using a word in a sense opposite to its proper meaning; 
as, Auri sacra fames. Virg. 

^ 11. Euphemism is the use of softened language to express what is offen- 
sive or distressing ; as, Si quid accidisset Casdri, i. e. si mortuus esset. Veil. 

12. Antanacldsis is the use of the same word in different senses ; as, 
Quis neget JEnea natum de stirpe Neronem ? Sustulit hie matrem, sustulit 
Me patrem. Epigr. Amari jucundum est, si curetur ne quid insit amari. Cic. 

13. Anaphora, or epanaphora, is the repetition of a word at the begin- 
ning of successive clauses ; as, Nihilne te nocturnum presidium palatii, 
nihil urbis vigilia, nihil timor populi, &c. Cic. Te, dulcis conjux, te, solo 
in litore secutn, te, veniente die, te, decedente, canebat. Virg. 

14. Epistrophe is the repetition of a word at the end of successive 
clauses ; as, Pcenos populus Romdnus justitid vicit, armis vicit, liberalitdte 
vicit. Cic. 

15. Symploce is the repetition of a word at the beginning, and of an- 
other at the end, of successive clauses; as, Quis legem tulit? Rullus : 
Quis major em populi partem suffragiis privdvit ? Rullus : Quis comitiis 
prcefuit ? Idem Rullus. Cic. 

16. Epanalepsis is a repetition of the same word or sentence after a 
parenthesis. Virg. Geor. II. 4 — 7. 

17. Anadipldsis is the use of the same word at the end of one clause, 
and the beginning of another ; as, Hie tamen vivit : Vivit? imo verb, 
etiam in sendtum venit, Cic. This is sometimes called epanastrophe . 

18. Epanadiplosis is the use of the same word both at the beginning 
and end of a sentence ; as, Crescit amor nummi, quantum ipsa pecunia 
crescit. Juv. 

19. Epanddos is the repetition of the same words in an inverted order; 
as, Crudelis mater magis, an puer improbus Me ? Improbus Me puer, cru- 
delis tu quoque, mater. Virg. 

20. Epizeuxis is a repetition of the same word for the sake of emphasis ; 
as, Excitate, excitate eum ab inferis. Cic. Ah Corydon, Corydon, quce te 
dementia cepit ? Virg. Ibimus, ibimus. Hor. 

21. Climax is when each successive clause of a sentence begins with 
the conclusion of the preceding, the sense being thus gradually amplified; 
as, Qua reliqua spes manet libertatis, si Mis et quod libet, licet ; et quod licet, 
possunt; et quod possunt, audent ; et quod audcnt,vobis moiestum non est? 
Cic. 

22. Incrementum is an amplification without a strict climax ; as, Facinus 
est, vinclri civem Romanum ; scelus, verberdri ; prope parricidium, necdri; 
quid dicam in cruccm tolli? Cic. When the sense is gradually heighten- 
ed, it is called anabasis, and when it falls or decreases, catabdsis. 

23. Polyptoton is a repetition of the same word in different cases, gen- 
ders, numbers, &c. ; as, Jam clypeus clypcis, umbone repellxtur umbo ; ense 
minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspid. Stat. 

24. Parrrrmcnon is the use of several words of the same origin, in one 
sentence ; as, Abesse non potest, quin ejusdem homlnis sit, qui improbos 
probet, probos improbare. Cic. 

25. Paronomasia is the use of words which resemble each other in 
sound ; as, Amur et inelle et felle est j"aicundisslmus. Plaut. Civem £<md- 
rum artium, bondrum partium. Cic. Amantcs sunt amentcs. Ter. This 
fiofure is sometimes called annonihuitio. 



APPENDIX. TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 303 

26. Homozoprophe'ron, or alliteration, is when several words beginning 
with the same letter occur in a sentence ; as, Tite, tute Tati, tibi tantu, 
tyranne, tulisti. Enn. Ncu patriot validas in viscera vcrtitc vires. Virg. 

27. Antithesis is the placing of different or opposite words or sentiments 
in contrast ; as, Hujus oratidnis dijjicilius est exitum quam principium 
invcnlre. Cic. Cassar beneficiis ac munificentia magnus habebdtur ; integ- 
ritate vitse Cato. Sail. 

28. Oxymoron unites words of contrary significations, thus producing 
a seeming contradiction ; as, Concordia discors. Hor. Cum tacent, cla- 
mant. Cic. 

29. Synonymia is the use of different words or expressions having the 
same import; as, JYon feram, non patiar, non sinam. Cic. Promitto, re- 
cipio, spondco. Id. 

30. Parabola, or simile, is the comparison of one thing with another ; 
as, Repentt te, tanquam serpens e latibulis, ocitlis eminentlbus, injldto collo, 
tumldis cerviclbus, intulisti. Cic. 

31. Erotesis is an earnest question, and often implies a strong affirma- 
tion of the contrary ; as, Crcdltis avectos hostes ? Virg. Heu ! qua. me 
atquora possunt accipere ? Id. 

32. Epanorthosis is the recalling of a word, in order to place a stronger 
or more significant one in its stead ; as, Filium unicum adolescentulum 
habeo : ah ! quid dixi ? me habere ? Imd habui. Ter. 

33. Aposiopesis is leaving a sentence unfinished in consequence of some 
emotion of the mind; as, Quos ego — sed motos praistat componere fiuctus. 
Virg. 

34. Prosopopoeia, or personification, represents inanimate things as act- 
ing or speaking, and persons dead or absent as alive and present ; as, Qua* 
(patria) tecum Catilina sic agit. Cic. Virtus sumit aut ponit secures. Hor. 

35. Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject, to 
address some person or thing; as, Vi potltur : quid non mortalia pectora 
cogis, auri sacra fames ! Virg. 

<§> o2i). To the figures of rhetoric may be subjoined the following 
terms, used to designate defects or blemishes in style : — 

1. Barbarism is either the use of a foreign word, or a violation of the 
rules of orthography, etymology, or prosody ; as, rigorosus, for rigldus or 
scverus ; dommlnus, for dominus ; davi, for dedi; alterius, for alterlus. 

2. Solecism is a violation of the rules of syntax; as, Venus pulcher ; vos 
invidemus. 

3. JYeoterism is the use of words or phrases introduced by authors living 
subsequently to the best ages of Latinity; as, murdrum, a murder; con- 
stabularius, a constable. 

4. Tautology is a repetition of the same meaning in different words; as, 
Jam vos aciem, et proelia, et hostem poscitis. Sil. 

5. Amphibolia is the use of equivocal words or constructions ; as, Gallus, 
a Gaul, or a cock. Aio te, JEacida, Romanos vincere posse. Quinct. 

6. Idiotism is a construction peculiar to one or more languages : thus, 
the ablative after comparatives is a Latinism. When a peculiarity of one 
language is imitated in another, this is also called idiotism. Thus, Mitte 
mihivcrbum, instead of Fac me certiorem, is an Anglicism. 



304 APPENDIX. ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING ; TIME. 

ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING. 

I. OF TIME. 

<§> 326. 1. The calendar of the Romans agreed with our 
own in the number of months, and of the days in each ; but, 
instead of reckoning in an uninterrupted series from the first 
to the last day of a month, they had three points from which 
their days were counted — the calends, the nones, and the ides. 
The calends were always the first day of the month. The 
nones were the fifth, and the ides the thirteenth; except in 
March, May, July, and October, in which the nones occurred 
on the seventh day, and the ides on the fifteenth. 

2. They always counted forwards, from the day whose date 
was to be determined to the next calends, nones, or ides, and 
designated the day by its distance from such point. After the 
first day of the month, therefore, they began to reckon so many 
days before the nones ; after the nones, so many days before the 
ides ; after the ides, so many before the calends, of the next 
month. 

Thus, the second of January was denoted by quarto nonas Januarias, 
or Januarii, sc. die ante; the third, tertio nonas ; the fourth, pridie nonas; 
and the fifth, nonis. The sixth was denoted by octavo idus ; the seventh, 
septimo idus ; and so on to the thirteenth, on which the ides fell. The 
fourteenth was denoted by undevigeslmo calendas Februarias, or Febru- 
arii ; and so on to the end of the month. 

3. The day preceding the calends, nones, and ides, was term- 
ed pridie calendas, &,c, sc. ante: in designating the other days, 
both the day of the calends, &c, and that whose date was to 
be determined, were reckoned ; hence the second day before the 
calends, &c, was called tertio, the third quarto, &c. 

4. To reduce the Roman calendar to our own, therefore, it 
is necessary to take one from the number denoting the day, and 
to subtract the remainder from the number of the day on which 
the nones or ides fell. 

Thus, to determine the day equivalent to IV. nnnas Januarias, we take 
1 from 4, and subtract the remainder, 3, from 5, the day on which the nones 
fell : this gives 2, or the second of January, for the day in question. So 
VI. idus Jlprilis : the ides of April falling upon the 13th, we take 5 from 
13, which leaves 8 : the expression, therefore, denotes the 8th of April. 

In reckoning the days before the calends, as they are not the 
last day of the current month, but the first of the following, it 
is necessary to add one to the number of days in the month. 

Thus, XV. col. Quintlles is (30+1) 31—14=17, or the 17th of June. 



APPENDIX. ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING J TIME. o05 

To reduce our calendar to the Roman, the same method is 
to be pursued. 

Thus, the 22d of December is (31-j-l) 32 — 21=11, i. e. XI. Gal. Jan. 

5. In leap-year, both the 24th and 25th of February were 
denoted by sexto calcndas Martias or Martii. The latter of 
these was called dies bissextus, and the year itself annus bis- 
sextus. 

The day after the calends, &c, was sometimes called postridie calcndas, 
&c. 

The names of the months are properly adjectives, though often used 
as nouns, mensis being understood. Before the times of the emperors, 
July was called Quintills, and August, Scxtllis. The names Julius and 
Augustus were given in honor of the Caesars. 

6. The correspondence of our calendar with that of the 
Romans is exhibited in the following 

TABLE. 



Days of 


Mar. 


Mai. 


Jan. Aug. 


Apr. Jun. 


Febr. 


our months. 


Jul. 


Oct. 


Dec 


Sept. Nov. 


1 


Calendar. 


Calends. 


Calendar. 


Calendaa. 


2 


VI. 


aonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


3 


V. 


" 


III. 


III. 


III. " 


4 


IV. 


« 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


5 


III. 


tt 


Nonas. 


Nonas. 


Nonas. 


6 


Pridie 


a 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


7 


Nonas. 




VII. 


VII. " 


VII. " 


8 


VIII. 


idus. 


VI. « 


VI. " 


VI. " 


9 


VII. 


a 


V. " 


V. " 


V. " 


10 


VI. 


a 


IV. « 


IV. " 


IV. " 


11 


V. 


a 


III. " 


III. « 


III. " 


12 


IV. 


a 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


13 


III. 


a 


Idus. 


Idus. 


Idus. 


14 


Pridie 


a 


XIX. cal. 


XVIII. cal. 


XVI. cal. 


15 


Id us. 




XVIlI. " 


XVII. " 


XV. " 


16 


XVII. 


cal. 


XVII. " 


XVI. " 


XIV. " 


1? 


XVI. 


a 


XVI. " 


XV. " 


XIII. " 


18 


XV. 


tt 


XV. 


XIV. " 


XII. " 


19 


XIV. 


tt 


XIV. » 


XJli. « 


XI. " 


20 


XIII. 


it. 


XIII. " 


XII. " 


X. 


21 


XII. 


a 


Xfl. " 


XI. " 


IX. " 


22 


XI. 


a 


XI. « 


X. « 


VIII. " 


23 


X. 


it 


X. " 


IX. " 


VII. » 


24 


IX. 


tt 


IX. " 


VIII. » 


VI. " 


25 


VIII. 


it 


VIII. " 


VII. " 


V. " 


26 


VII. 


it 


VII. 


VI. " 


IV. " 


27 


VI. 


tt 


VI. « 


v. « 


III. " 


28 


V. 


a 


V. « 


IV. 


Pridie "Mar. 


29 


IV. 


it 


IV. « 


III. 




30 


III. 


it 


III. « 


Pridie " 




31 


Pridie 
2G 


tt 

* 


Pridie " 







306 APPENDIX. —ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING ; MONEY. 

7. The Latins not only said tertio, pridie, &c, calendas, 
&c, but also ante diem tertium, &>c, calendas, &c. ; and the 
latter form in Cicero and Livy is far more common than the 
former, and is usually written thus, a. d. III. cal, &c. 

The expression ante diem was used as an indeclinable noun, 
and is joined with in and ex ; as, 

Consul Latinas ferias in ante diem tertium idus Sextilis edixit, The con 
sul appointed the Latin festival for the third day before the ides of August. 
Liv. Supplicatio indicta est ex ante diem quintum idus Octobres. Id. So, 
Ad pridie nonas Maias. Cic. 

II. OF MONEY. 

<§> 327, 1. The Romans reckoned their copper money by 
asses, their silver money by sestertii, and their gold money by 
Attic talents. 

2. The as was originally a pound of copper, but its weight 
was gradually diminished in succeeding ages, until, in the later 
days of the republic, it amounted to only ^ of a pound. It is 
divided into twelve parts, called uncicB. 

The names of the several parts are, uncia, yL-; sextans, -^; quad- 
rans, y 3 ^- ; tricns, y%- ; quincunx, y 5 ^- ', semis, or semissis, -fy ; septunx, y 7 ^- ; 
bes, or bessis, y 8 ^- ; dodrans, y 9 ^ ; dcxtans, y§- ; deunx, y^-. 

3. The denarius was a silver coin, originally equal in value 
to ten asses, whence its name; but, after the weight of the as 
was reduced, the denarius was equal to sixteen asses. Its value 
is usually estimated at about 14£ cents of our money. 

The sestertius, or sesterce, was one fourth of the denarius, 
or two asses and a half [semistertius), and was hence denoted 
by IIS, or IIS. When the denarius was worth 16 asses, the 
sestertius was worth 4. The sestertius was called emphatically 
nummus, as in it all large sums were reckoned after the coining 
of silver money. 

Half a denarius was a quinarius ; one tenth of a denarius, a libella. 

The aureus (a gold coin), in the time of the emperors, was 
equal to 25 denarii, or 100 sesterces. 

The talent is variously estimated, from $860 to $1020. 

4. In reckoning money, the Romans called any sum under 
2000 sesterces so many sestertii ; as, decern sestertii, ten ses- 
terces ; centum sestertii, a hundred sesterces. 

5. Sums from 2000 sesterces (inclusive) to 1,000,000, they 
denoted either by mille, millia, with sestertium (gen. plur.), or by 
the plural of the neuter noun sestertium, which itself signified 
a thousand sesterces. Thus they said quadraginta millia 



<§> 328. 



APPENDIX. ABBREVIATIONS. 



307 



sestertium, or quadraginta sestertia, to denote 40,000 sesterces. 
With the genitive sestertium, millia was sometimes omitted ; as, 
sestertium centum, sc. millia, 100,000 sesterces. 

6 To denote a million, or more, they used a combination ; 
thus, decies centena millia sestertium, 1,000,000 sesterces. The 
words centena millia, however, were generally omitted ; thus, 
decies sestertium, and sometimes merely decies. See § 113, 5. 
So, centics, 10 millions; millies, 100 millions. 

Some suppose that sestertium, when thus joined with the numeral ad- 
verbs, is always the neuter noun in the nominative or accusative singular. 
The genitive and ablative of that noun are thus used ; as, Decies sestertii 
dote, With a dowry of 1,000,000 sesterces. Tac. Quinquagics sestertio, 
5,000,000 sesterces. Id. But this usage does not occur in Cicero. 

The different combinations were thus distinguished : — HS. X. denoted 

decern sestertii; HS. X, decern sestertia; HS. X, decies sestertium. But 
this distinction was not always observed. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



<§> 328. The following are the most common abbreviations 
of Latin words : — 



A., Aulus. 
C, Cuius. 
Cn., Cneus. 
D., Declmus. 
L., Lucius. 
M., Mf"-zus. 



M. T. C, Marcus Tul- 

lius Cicero. 
M'., Manius. 
Mam., Mamercus. 
N., Numcrius. 
P., Publius. 



Q., or Qu., Quintus. 

Ser., Servius. 

S., or Sex., Sextus. 

Sp., Spurius. 

T., Titus. 

TL, or Tib., Tiberius 



A. d., ante diem. 

A. U. C, anno tirbis 
cond%t(B. 

Cal., or kal., calender. 

Cos., Consul. 

Coss., Consid.es. 

D., Divas. 

D. D., dono dedit. 

D. D. D., dat, dicat, de- 
dicat, or dono dicat } 
dedlcat. 

Des., designdtus. 

D. M., diis mariibus. 

Eq. Rom., eques Roma- 
nics. 



F., Filius; as, M. F., 

Marci filius. 
Ictus, jurisconsultus. 
Id., idus. 
Imp., imperdtor. 
J. O. M., Joci, opt.imo 

maximo. 
N., nepos. 
Non., nona;. 
P. C.j patres con- 

scripti. 
PL, plebis. 
Pop., popiilus. 
P. R., popiilus Roma- 



Pont. Max., pontlfex 
maximus. 

Pr., prator. 

Proc, proconsul. 

Resp., respubllca. 

S., salutem, sacrum, or 
sendtus. 

S. D. P., salutem dicit 
plurlmam. 

S. P. Q. B.., Sendtus 
populusque Romd- 
uus. 

S. C, sendtus consul- 
turn. 

Tr., tribunus. 



To these may be added terms of reference ; as, c, caput, chapter; c/C, 
confer, compare ; 1. c, loco citato ; I. I., loco laudato, in the place quoted; 
v., versus, verse. 



308 APPENDIX. DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

<§> 329. 1. Of the Roman literature for the first five cen- 
turies after the foundation of the city, hardly a vestige remains. 
The writers of the succeeding centuries have been arranged 
in four ages, in reference to the purity of the language in the 
period in which they flourished. These are called the golden, 
silver, brazen, and iron ages. 

2. The golden age is generally reckoned from about tne 
year 514 of the city to the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, a 
period of a little more than 250 years. The writers of the early 
part of this age are valued rather on account of their antiquity, 
than as models of style. It was not till the age of Cicero, that 
Roman literature reached its highest elevation. The era 
comprehending the generation immediately preceding, and that 
immediately succeeding, that of Cicero, as well as his own, is 
the period in which the most distinguished writers of Rome 
flourished ; and their works are the standard of purity in the 
Latin language. 

3. The silver age extended from the death of Augustus to the 
death of Trajan, A. D. 118, a period of 104 years. The wri- 
ters of this age were inferior to those who had preceded them ; 
yet several of them are worthy of commendation. 

4. The brazen age comprised the interval from the death of 
Trajan to the time when Rome was taken by the Goths, A. D. 
410. From the latter epoch commenced the iron age, during 
which the Latin language was much adulterated with foreign 
words, and its style and spirit essentially injured. 

LATIN WRITERS IN THE DIFFERENT AGES. 

(From the Lexicon of Facciolatus.) 

WRITERS OF THE GOLDEN AGE. 



Livius Andronicus. 


C. Decius Laberius. 




Atta. 


Laevius. 


M. Verrius Flaccus. 




Cassius Hemlna. 


G Nsevius. 


Varro Attaclnus. 




Fenestella. 


Statius CsDcUius. 


Titinius. 




Claud. Quadrigari- 


Q. Ennius. 


L. Pomponius. 




us. 


M. Pacuvius. 


A. Serenus. 




Coelius, or Ca^lius. 


L. Accius. 


C. Sempronius Asellio. 




Fabius Pictor. 


G. Lucilius. 


C. Sempronius Grac- 


Cn Gellius. 


Sex. Turpilius. 


chus. 


L. 


Piso. 


L. Afranius. 


S antra. . 




Valerius Antias. 


L. Cornelius Sisenna. 


Cn. Matius. 




Tiro Tullius, and 


P. Nigidius Figulus. 


Q. Novius. 




others. 



Of the works of the preceding writers, only a few fragments remain. 



APPENDIX. WRITERS IN DIFFERENT AGES. 



309 



M. Porcius Cato. 


Sex. Aurelius Proper- 


P. 


Ovidius Naso. 


M. Accius Plautus. 


tius. 


Q 


Horatius Flaccus. 


M. Terentius Afer. 


C. Sallustius Crispus. 


C. 


Pedo Albinovanus. 


T. Lucretius Carus. 


M. Terentius Varro. 




Gratius Faliscus. 


C. Valerius Catullus. 


Albius Tibullus. 




Phredrus. 


P. Syr us. 


P. Virgilius Maro. 


C. 


Cornificius. 


C. Julius Caesar. 


T. Livius. 


A. 


Hirtius, or Oppius. 


Cornelius Nepos. 


M. Manilius. 


P. 


Cornelius Severus. 


M. Tullius Cicero. 


M. Vitruvius. 







To these may be added the following names of lawyers, whose 
opinions are found in the digests : — 

Q. Mutius Scoevola. M. Antistius Labeo. Masurius Sablnus. 

Alfenus Varus. 

Of the writers of the golden age, the most distinguished are 
Terence, Catullus, Csesar, Nepos, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, T. 
Livy, and Sallust. 

WRITERS OF THE SILVER AGE. 



A. Cornelius Celsus. 
P. Velleius Paterculus. 
L. Junius Moderatus 
Columella. 
Pomponius Mela. 
A. Persius Flaccus. 
Q. Asconius Pedianus. 
M. Annseus Seneca. 
L. Annseus Seneca. 



M. Annseus Lucanus. 
T. Petronius Arbiter. 
C. Plinius Secundus, 
C. Silius ItalTcus. 
C. Valerius Flaccus. 

C. Julius Sollnus. 

D. Junius Juvenalis. 
P. Papinius Statius. 
M. Valerius Martialis. 



M. Fabius Quintilia- 
nus. 

Sex. Julius Frontinus. 

C. Cornelius Tacitus. 

C Plinius Csecilius Se- 
cundus. 

L. Annseus Florus. 

C. Suetonius Tranquil- 
lus. 



The age to which the following writers should be assigned is some- 
what uncertain: — 

Q. Curtius Rufus. Scribonius Largus. L. Fenestella. 

Valer. Probus. Sulpitia. Atteius Caplto. 

Of the writers of the silver age, the most distinguished are Celsus, 
Velleius, Columella, the Senecas, the Plinies, Juvenal, Quintilian, 
Tacitus, Suetonius, and Curtius. 

WRITERS OF THE BRAZEN AGE. 



A. Gellius. 

L. Apuleius. 

Q,. Septimius Tertullianus. 

Q. Serenus Sammonicus. 

Censorlnus. 

Thascius Csecilius Cyprianus. 
T. Julius Calpurnius. 
M. Aurelius Nemesianus. 

iElius Spartianus. 

Julius Capitollnus. 

iElius Lampridius. 

Vulcatius Gallicanus. 

Trebellius Pollio. 

Flavius Vopiscus. 

Ccelius Aurelianus. 

Flavius Eutropius. 

Rhemnius Fannius. 

Arnobius Afer. 



L. Ccelius Lactantius. 
^lius Donatus. 

C. Vettus Juvencus. 
Julius Firmicus. 

Fab. Marius Victorlnus. 

Sex. Rufus, or Rufus Festus. 

Ammianus Marcelllnus. 

Vegetius Renatus. 
Aurel. Theodorus Macrobius. 
Q. Aurelius Symmachus. 

D. Magnus Ausonius. 
Paullnus Nolanus. 

Sex. Aurelius Victor. 
Aurel. Prudentius Clemens. 
CI. Claudianus. 

Marcellus Empiricus. 

Falconia Proba. 



310 



APPENDIX. WRITERS IN DIFFERENT AGES. 



Of an Age not entirely certain. 

Valerius Maximus. Minutius Felix. Fl. Avienus, or Avia- 

Justlnus. Sosipater Charisius. nus. 

Terentianus Maurus. 

The opinions of the following lawyers are found in the digests : — 
Licinius Proculus. Salvius Julianus. Sex. Pomponius. 

Caius. 
Callistratus. 
/Emilius Papinianus 
Julius Paulus. 



Venuleius Saturnlnus. 
iElius Marcianus. 
i£lius Gallus, and 
others. 



Neratius Priscus. 
P. Juventius Celsus. 
Priscus Jabolenus. 
Domitius Ulpianus. 
Herennius Modestlnus. 

Of the writers of the brazen age, Justin, Terentianus, Victor, Lac- 
tantius, and Claudian, are most distinguished. 

The age to which the following writers belong is uncertain. The 
style of some of them would entitle them to be ranked with the writ- 
ers of the preceding ages, while that of others would place them even 
below those of the iron age. 
PalladiusRutiliusTau- Catalecta Virgilii et 



rus iEmilianus. 
iEmilius Macer. 
Messala Corvlnus. 
Vibius Sequester. 
Julius Obsequens. 
L. Ampelius. 
Apicius Ccelius. 
Sex. Pompeius Festus. 
Probus (auctor Nota- 

rum.) 
Fulgentius Planciades. 
Hyglnus. 

C. Caesar Germanicus. 
P. Victor. 
P. Vegetius. 
Auctores Priapeiorum. 



Ovidii. 

Auctor orationis Sal- 
lustii in Cic. et Ci- 
ceronis in Sail. ; 
item illius Antt- 
quam iret in exsi- 
lium. 

Auctor Epistolee ad Oc- 
tavium. 

Auctor Panegyrici ad 
Pisonem. 

Declamationes quae 
tribuuntur Quintili- 
ano, Porcio Latro- 
ni, Calpurnio Flac- 
co. 



Interpres Daretis Phry- 

gii, et Dictyos Cre- 

tensis. 
Scholiastaa Veteres. 
Gramraatici Antiqui. 
Rhetores Antiqui. 
Medici Antiqui. 
Catalecta Petroniana. 
Pervigilium Veneris. 
Poematia et Epigram- 

mata Vetera a Pi- 

thaso collecta. 
Monurnentum Ancy- 

ranum. 
Fasti Consulares. 
Inscriptiones Veteres. 



WRITERS OF THE IRON AGE. 



CI. Rutilius Numatia- 

nus. 
Servius Honoratus. 
D. Hieronymus. 
D. Augustlnus. 
Sulpici'us Severus. 
Paulus Orosius. 
Caelius Sedulius. 
Codex Theodosianus. 
Martianus Capella. 
Claudianus Mamertus. 
Sidonius Apollinaris. 



Latlnus Pacatus. 
Claudius Mamertlnus, 

et alii, quorum sunt 

Panegyrici veteres. 
Alclmus Avltus. 
Manl. Severlnus Bofi- 

thius. 
Priscianus. 
Nonius Marcellus. 
Justiniani Institutidnes 

et Codex. 



Arator. 

M. Aurelius Cassido- 

rus. 
Fl. Cresconius Corip- 

pus. 
Venantius Fortunatus. 
lsidorus Hispalensis. 
Anonymus Ravennas. 
Aldhelmus or Althel- 

mus. 
Paulus Diaconus. 



INDEX 



The figures in the following Index designate the sections, and their divisions : k. stands 
for remark, w. for note, and e. for exception. 



A, sound of, 7 and 8— -nouns in, of 3d 
dec, gender of, 66 5 genitive of, 68— 
increment in, 3d dec, 287, 3 ; plural, 
288: of verbs, 290— final, quantity of, 
294. 

A, ab, abs, how used, 195, R. 2. 

Abbreviations, 328. 

Abdico, construction of, 251, R. 2. 

Ablative, 37— sing., 3d dec, 82; of ad- 
jectives, 3d dec, 113 and 114 — plur., 
1st dec, 43; 3d dec, 84; 4th dec, 
89, 5— used adverbially, 192, L, II.— 
of character, quality, &,c, 211, r. 6 — 
after prepositions, 241 — of situation, 
&c, after sum, 245, III. — after partici- 
ples denoting origin, 246 — of cause, 
&c, 247— of agent, 248— of a noun, 
with which, &c, 249 ; in accordance 
with which, 249, II. — of accompani- 
ment, 249, III. — denoting in what re- 
spect, 250 — after adjectives of plenty 
or want, 250 — after verbs of abound- 
ing, &c,250 — with facio and sum, 250, 
r. 3 — after verbs of depriving, <fec, 
251— of price, 252— of time, 253— of 
place, where, 254 ; whence, 255 — after 
comparatives, 256 — after alius, 256, 
r. 14 — of degree of difference, 256, 
R. 16 — absolute, 257 ; do., without a 
participle, 257, r. 7; do., with a 
clause instead of a noun, 257, R. 8. 

Abounding and wanting, verbs of, with 
abl., 250— with gen., 220, (3.) 

Abstract nouns, 26 — formation of, 101 
and 102. 

Abus, dat. and abl. plur. in, 43. 

Ac si with subj.,263. 2. 

Acatalectic verse, 304. 

Accents, 5. 

Accentuation, 14. 

Accompaniment, abl. of, 249, III. 

Accordance, abl. of, 249, II. 



Accusative, 37 — sing., 3d dec, 79 ; of 
Greek nouns, 80 — plur., 3d dec, 85 — 
neuter, used adverbially, 192, II., 4, 
and 205, r. 10— after verbs, 229-234 
—omitted, 229, R.4 — infinitive instead 
of, 229, r. 5 — of a person, after misi- 
ret, &c, 229, R. 6 ; after juvat, &c, 
229, r. 7— after neuter verbs, 232— 
after compound verbs, 233 — after ver- 
bal nouns, 233, N.— of part affected, 
234, II. — after prepositions, 235 — of 
time and space, 236 — of place, 237 — 
after adverbs and interjections, 238 — 
as subject, 239. 

Accusatives, two, after what verbs, 230 
— latter of, after passive voice, 234. 

Accusing and acquitting, verbs of, with 
gen., 217. 

Acephalous verse, 304. 

Active voice, 141. 

verb, 141— object of, 229— two 

cases after, 229, r. 1 — omitted, 229, 
R. 3. 

Adjectives, 104-131 — classes of, 104 — 
declension of, 105 — gen. sing, of, 112, 
114 — abl. sing, of, 113, 114 — nom. and 
gen. plur. of, 113, 114— irregular, 115, 
116— derivation of, 128— verbal, 129 
—participial, 130— adverbial, 130 — 
prepositional, 130 — composition of, 
131— how modified, 201, III., r. 2— 
agreement of, 205— either modifiers 
or predicates, 205, n. 1 — with two or 
more nouns, 205, r. 2 — with a collec- 
tive noun, 205, r. 3 — sing, with a plur. 
noun, 205, r. 4 — dat. of,'for ace, 205, 
R. 6 — without a noun, 205, r. 7 — with 
infinitives, clauses, &c, 205, r. 8 — 
with gen. instead of their own case, 
205, r. 9, and 212, r. 3— used parti- 
tively, gender of, 205, r. 12 — instead 
of adverbs, 205, r. 15— primus, medi- 



312 



INDEX. 



us, &c, signification of, 205, r. 17 — 
agreeing with relative instead of ante- 
cedent, 206, (7,)— gen. after, 213— 
fen. or abl. after, 213, it. 5 — dat. after, 
22— gen. or dat. after, 213, R. 6, and 
222, u. 2 — of plenty or want, with abl., 
250 — followed by infin., 270, K. 1 — 
place of, 279, 7. 

Adjective pronouns, 134—139 — classes 
of, 13-1 — agreement of, 205. 

Admonishing, verbs of, with gen., 218. 

Adorning and arraying, verbs of, with 
abl., 249. 

Adonic verse, 312. 

Adverbial adjectives, 130. 

Adverbs, 190-194 numeral, 119 of 

place, mutual relation of, 191, R. 1 — 
derivation of, 192 — composition of, 
193 — comparison of, 194 — how modi- 
fied, 201 , III. r . 4 — used as adjectives, 
205, r. 11 — with gen., 212, r. 4 — with 
dat., 228, (1,)— with ace, 238— use of, 
277 — two negatives, force of, 277, r. 
3-5 — equivalent to phrases, 277, r. 
8 — of likeness, as connectives, 278, r. 
1 — place of, 279, 15. 

iEnigma, 324, 7. 

Affection of the mind, verbs denoting, 
with gen., 220. 

Agent, dative of, 225, II., III.— when 
wanting, 225, III., r. 1— abl. of, 248. 

Ages of Roman literature, 323. 

Agnominatio, 324, 25. 

Agreement, defined, 203, 6 — of adjec- 
tives, adjective pronouns, and partici- 
ples, 205 — of relatives, 206. 

At, genitive in, 43— -quantity of the a in, 
283, e. 3. 

Aio, 183, 4 — its place in a sentence, 
279> 6. 

At, nouns in, abl. of, 82 — increment of, 
287, e. (A.) 1. 

Alcaic — greater, 318, III.— lesser, 318, 

Alcmanian dactylic tetrameter, 312. 

A/is, aris, alilis, adj. in, 128, 2. 

Aliquis, declined, 138. — how used, 207, 
R. 30. 

Alius, how declined, 107 — how used, 207, 
r. 32 —with abl., 256, r. 14. 

Allegory, 324, 7. 

Alliteration, 324, 26. 

Alter, how declined, 107 — how used, 207, 
r.32, and 212, r. 2, n. 1. 

Amlw, how declined, 118. 

Amphibolia, 325, 5. 

Amplificatives, nouns, 100, 4 — adjec- 
tives, 10k and 128, 4. 

Anabasis, 324, 22. 

Ajiacolulhon, 323, 3, (5.) 

Anacreontic iambic dimeter, 314, IX. 



Anadiplosis, 324, 17. 

Analysis of sentences, 281. 

Anapaestic, metre, 313,303 — monometer, 
313 — dimeter, 313. 

Anaph6ra, 324, 13. 

Aiiastr6phe, 323, 4, (1.) 

Ante diem caL, &c, 326, 7. 

Antanaclasis, 324, 12. 

Antecedent, 136— understood, 206, (3 ; ) 
(1,) — its place supplied by a demon- 
strative, 206, (3,)— in the case of the 
relative, 206, (6.) 

Antepenult, 13— quantity of, 292. 

Antequam, by what mood followed, 
263, 3. 

Antimeria, 323, 3, (1.) 

Antiphrasis, 324, 10. 

Antiptosis, 323, 3, (3.) 

Antithesis, 322, and 324, 27. 

Antonomasia, 324, 8. 

Apage, 183, 10. 

Apheeresis, 322. 

Apocope, 322. 

Apodosis, 261. 

Aposiopesis, 324, 33. 

Apostrophe, 324, 35. 

Appendix, 322-329. 

Apposition, 201 — to two or more nouns, 
204, R.5— to nouns connected by cum, 
204, R. 5 — to proper names of differ- 
ent genders, 204, R. 5 — gen. instead 
of, 204, R. 6— abl. with gen., 204, r. 
7 — of parts with a whole, 204, r. 10, 
and 212, r. 2 ; n. 5 — nouns in, place 
of, 279, 9. 

Aptotes, 94. 

Ar, nouns in, gender of, 66, 61 — gen. of, 
70. 71— abl. of, 82— increment of, 287, 

E.'(A.)1. 

Archaism, 323, R. (1.) 

Archilochian, penthemimoris, 312 — iam- 
bic trimeter, 314, V.— do. dimeter, 
314, VII.— heptameter, 318, IV. 

Arium, nouns in, 100, 8. 

Anus, adj. in, 128, 3. 

Arrangement, of words, 279 — of clauses, 
280. 

Arsis and thesis, 308. 

As, genitives in, 43 — nouns in, of3d dec, 
gender of, 62; gen. of, 72 — and amis, 
adj. in, 128, 6— final, quantity of, 300. 

,4s, Roman, value of, 327 — how divided, 
327. 

Asclepiadic tetrameter, 316, III. 

Asking, demanding, and teaching, verbs 
of, two ace. after, 231. 

Assiiesco, with abl., 245, II. — with dat., 
245. II., R. 1. 

Asyndeton, 323, 1, (1.) 

Attraction, 206, (6.) 

Audeo, how conjugated, 112, r. 2. 



INDEX. 



313 



Audiens, construction of, 222, R. I. 

Aureus, value of, 327, 3. 

Ausim, 183, R. 1. 

Authority, quantity determined by, 

282,4, 
Av and atu, in the 2d and 3d roots of 

verbs, 164 
Ave, 183, 8. 
Ax, adj. in, 129, 6 — verbals in, with gen., 

213, r. 1. 



B. 



B final, quantity of, 299. 

Barbarism, 325, 1. 

Belli, construction of, 221, R. 3. 

Bilis, adjectives in, 129, 3 — with dative, 

222. 
Bos, dat. and abl. plur. of, 84, and 286, 5. 
Brachycatalectic verse, 304. 
Brazen age, 329, 4. 
Bucolic caesura, 310, 6. 
Bundus, adjectives in, 129, 1 — with ace, 

233, n. 



C, sound of, 10— nouns in, gender of, 
66 ; gen. of, 70 — final, quantity of, 299. 

Caesura, 309— different kinds of, 309— 
in hexameter verse, 310, 3-6 — in pen- 
tameter verse, 311, 2 — in iambic verse, 
314, I. andX. — in trochaic verse, 315, 
I. — in choriambic verse, 316, III. 

Caesural pause, 309, 3. 

Calends, 326. 

Cardinal numbers, 117 and 118. 

Cases of nouns, 36 and 37. 

Catabasis, 324, 22. 

Catachresis, 324,. 1. 

Catalectic verse, 304. 

Cause, abl. of, 247 — ace. of with prepo- 
sitions, 247, R. 1. 

Ce and cine, enclitic, 134, R. 4. 

Cedo, 183, 11. 

Celo, with two accusatives, 231. 

Ceu, with subjunctive, 263, 2. 

Ch, sound of, 10. 

Character or quality, gen. of, 211, R. 6. 

Choliambus, 314, II. 

Choriambic, metre, 316 and 303 — pen- 
tameter, 316, 1. — tetrameter, 316, II. — 
trimeter, 316, IV. — trimrter catalectic, 
316, V.— dimeter, 316, VI. 

Clam, government of, 235, (5.) 

Clause, as a logical subject, 201, IV. 

Clauses, 203— how connected, 203, 4, 
and 278, r. 3 — arrangement of, 280. 

Climax, 324, 21. 

27 



Coepi, 183, 2. 

Collective nouns, 26 — number of their 
verbs, 209, R. 11. 

Common, nouns, 26 — gender, 30 — sylla- 
ble, 282, 2. 

Comparative degree, 123 — formation of, 
124. 

Comparatives, declined, 110 — with gen., 
212, R. 2— denoting one of two, 212, 
R. 2, N. 1 — with abl. 256. 

Comparison, of adjectives, 122-127 — 
terminational, 124 — of adverbs, 194 — 

irregular, 125— defective, 126 by 

magis and maxime, 127. 

Composition, of nouns, 103 — of adj., 131 
—of verbs, 188— of adverbs, 193. 

Compound, subject, 201 — predicate, 202, 
II.— sentence, 203 — metres, 318. 

Compound words, how divided, 23— 
quantity of, 285. 

Con, adjectives compounded with, with 
gen., 222 — verbs do., with dat., 224. 

Concretes, 101, 2. 

Condemning and convicting, verbs of, 
with gen., 217. 

Confido, with abl., 245, II.— with dat., 
245, R. 1. 

Confit, 183, 12, and 180, w. 

Conjugation, 149 — first, 155 and 156 — 
second, 157— third, 158 and 159— 
fourth, 160 — of deponent verbs, 161— 
periphrastic, 162 — general rules of, 
163— third, list of verbs in, 172— of 
irregular verbs, 178-182 — of defective 
verbs, 183 — of impersonal verbs, 184. 

Conjugations, how characterized, 149— 
remarks on, 162. 

Conjunctions, 198 — classes of, 198— en- 
clitic, 198, r. 2 — copulative and dis- 
junctive, their use, 278 j may connect 
different moods, 278, R. 4 and 5; re- 
peated, 278, r. 7. 

Connection, of tenses, 258 — of words by 
conjunctions, 278 — of clauses by do., 
278, R. 3. 

Connecting vowel, 150, 5 — omitted in 
2d root, 163, 2. 

Connectives, place of, 279, 3. 

Consonants, sounds of, 10 — 12. 

Consto, with abl., 245, II. 

Contentus, with abl., 244. 

Contracted syllables, quantity of, 233, 

Contractions in 2d root of verbs, 162, 7. 

Copula, 140. 

Crasis, 306, (5,) and 322. 

Crime, gen. of, after verbs, 217. 

Cujas, how declined, 139. 

Cujus, how declined, 137, R. 5. 

Cum annexed to abl., 133, R. 4, and 136, 

R. 1. 



314 



INDEX. 



Cum, by what mood followed, 263, 5. 
Cundus, adjectives in, 129, 1. 
Cunque, its force, 191, R. 4. 



D. 

D final, quantity of, 299. 

Dactylic, metre, 310 and 303 — trimeter, 
312— dimeter, 312. 

Dactylico-iambic metre, 318, 1. 

Dactylico-trochaic, heptameter, 318, IV. 
— tetrameter, 318, V. 

Dative, 37 — sing., 3d dec., 79— plural, 
1st dec, 43 ; 3d dec, 84; 4th dec, 
89, 5— used for gen., 211, r. 5— after 
adjectives, 222 — different constructions 
instead of, 222, r. 4 and 6— after 
idem, 222, r. 7— after verbs, 223-227 
— after verbs compounded, with ad, 
ante, &e, 224 ; wuh ab, de, and ex, 
224, R. 1 and 2 ; with satis, ben£, and 
male, 225— of the agent, 225, II. III. 
—of the possessor after est, 226 — af- 
ter particles, 228. 

Datives, two, after sum, &c, 227. 

Declension, of nouns, 38-40 — rules of, 
40 — first, 41-45 ; exc in, 4-3 — second, 
46-54 ; exc in, 52— third, 55-86 ; exc. 
in, 68-85— fourth, 87-89 ; exc in, 89 ; 
formed by contraction, 89 — fifth, 90 ; 
exc. in, 90 — of adjectives, first and 
second, 105-107; third, 108-111. 

Declensions, tabular view of, 39. 

Degrees of comparison, 123. 

Defective, nouns, 94-96 — adjectives, 115 
—verbs, 183. 

Deft, 183, 13, and 180, N. 

Dem, enclitic, 134, r. 6. 

Demonstrative pronouns, 134— construc- 
tion of, 207 — in apposition with a 
clause, 207, r. 22, and 206, ( 13,)— used 
for reflexives, 208, (6,)— place of, 279, 
7. 

Denarius, its value, 327 — divisions of, 
327. 

Denominatives, adj., 128 — verbs, 187, I. 

Dependence defined, 203, 8, 

Dependent clauses, 203. 

Deponent verbs, 142, R. 4 — conjugated, 
161— participles of, 162, 17— lists of, 
lstconj., 166; 2dconj.,170; 3dconj., 
174; 4th conj., 177— increment of, 
289, 3. 

Depriving, verbs of, with abl., 251. 

Derivation, of nouns, 100 — of adjectives, 
128— of verbs, 187— of adverbs, 192. 

Derivative words, quantity of, 284. 

Desiderative verbs, 187, II. 3, and 176, 
n.«— quantity of the u in, 284, E 5. 

Deus declined^ 53. 



Diaeresis, 306, 2— mark of, 5. 

Diastole, 307, 2. 

Die, imperative, 162, 4. 

Dicolon, 319. 

Dicto audiens, with dat., 222, R. 1. 

Difference, degree of, how expressed, 

256, r. 16. 
Digni, with abl., 244. 
Dignor, with abl., 245. 
Dignus, indignus, &c, with abl. ? 244 — 

with gen., 244, r. 2~with relative and 

subjunctive, 264, 9. 
Diminutive, nouns, 100, 3 adjectives, 

104, and 128, 5— verbs, 187, II. 4. 
Diphthongs, 4— sounds of, 9— quantity 

of, 283, II. 
Diptotes, 94. 
Distich, 304. 

Distributive numbers, 119 and 120. 
Distrophon, 319. 

Do, increment of, 290, E., and 284, E. 4. 
Domus, declined, 89 — construction of, 

gen., 221, r. 3 ; ace, 237, r. 4 ; abl., 

255, r. 1. 
Donee, with subjunctive, 263, 4. 
Double letters, 3. 
Doubtful gender, 30. 
Due, imperative, 162, 4. 
Dum, with subjunctive, 263, 4 — and 

dummodo with do., 263, 2. 
Duo declined, 118. 
Dus, participle in, with dat., 225, III. — 

with ace, 234, r. 2 — its signification, 

274, 2, R. 8— used for a gerund, 275, 



E. 



E, sound of, 7 and 8 — nouns in, of 3d 
dec, gender of, 66; gen. of, 68; abl. 
of, 82— adverbs in, 192, II.— and ex, 
how used, 195, r. 2 — increment in, 
3d dec, 287, 3 ; plur., 288 ; of verbs, 
290— final, quantity of, 295. 

Eapse, &c, 135, r. 3. 

Eccum, eccillum, &c, 134, R. 2, and 
238, 2. 

Ecquis, how declined, 137, R. 3. 

Ecthlipsis, 305, 2. 

Edo and etas, abstracts in, 101. 

Edo (to eat; conjugated, 181. 

Ego, declined, 133. 

Ela, verbals in, 102, 3. 

Elegiac verse, 311, 3. 

Ellipsis, 323. See Omission. 

Emphatic word, place of, in a sentence, 
279, 2, and 16. 

Enallage, 323, 3. 

Enclitics, in accentuation, 15— conjunc- 
tions, 198, r. 2. 



INDEX. 



315 



Ennehemimeris, 304, 5. 
E7isis, adjectives in, 128, 6. 
Eo, conjugated, 182— compounds of, 
182 r. 3 — with supine in urn, 276, II., 

K.2. 

EpaHadiplosis, 321, 18. 
Epanados, 324, 19. 

Epanalepsis, 324, 16. 
Epanaphora, 324, 13. 
Epanastrophe, 324, 17. 
Epanorthosis, 324, 32. 
Epenthesis, 322. 
Epistrophe, 324, 14. 
Epizeuxis, 324, 20. 
Epulor, with abl., 245, II. 
Equality, how denoted, 122. 
Er, nouns in, of 3d dec, gender of, 58 
and 60 j gen. of, 70 and 71— adjec- 
tives in, superlative of, 125 — annexed 
to pres. infin. pass., 162, 6. 
Erotesis, 324, 31. 

Es, nouns in, of 3d dec, increasing m 
gen., gender of, 58 and 61 ; gen. of, 
73 ; not increasing in gen., gender of, 
62 5 gen. of, 73 — final, sound of, 8, e. 
2 5 quantity of, 300. 
Est, with dat. of a possessor, 216. 
Etum, nouns in, 100, 7. 
Etymology, 24-199. 
Ev and etu, in 2d and 3d roots of verbs, 

167. 
Euphemism, 324, 11. 
Eus, adjectives in, 128, 1— Greek prop- 
er names in, 283, N. 2. 



F. 

Fac, 162, 4— with subj. for imperat., 
267, r. 3. 

Facile, with superlatives, &c, 277, R.7. 

Facio, (and compounds,) passive of, 180 

with abl., 250, R. 3 — with ut and 

the subj., 273, 1 — with participle, 273, 
1. 

Fan, 183, 6. 

Faxo zndfaxim, 162, 9, and 183, R. 1. 

Feet, 302 — isochronous, 302. 

Feminine nouns, of 3d -dec, 62} exc. in, 
62-65. 

Fer, imperative, 152, 4. 

Fe.ro, conjugated, 179. 

Fido, how conjugated, 142, R. 2— with 
abl., 245, II.— with dat., 245, II. R. 1. 

Figures, of prosody, 305-307 — of or- 
thography and etymology, 322 — of 
syntax, 323 — of rhetoric, 324. 

Filling verbs of, with abl., 249— with 
gen., 220, (3.) . . 

Fio, conjugated, 180— quantity of its t, 
283. E. 1. 



Follow, in what sense used, 203, 9. 

Fo rem, fore, 154, 3. 

Frequentative verbs, 187, II.— quantity 

of the i in, 284, e. 6. 
Fretus, with abl., 244. 
Fruor, with abl., 245. 
Fungor, with abl., 245. 
Future tense, 145, III. 
Future perfect tense, 145, VI. 



G, sound of, 10. 
Galliambus, 314, X. 
Gaudeo, how conjugated, 142, R. 2— 
with abl., 245, II.— with ace, 245, II., 

R. 1. 

Gender, general rules of, 27-34— natural 
and grammatical, 27— masc. from sig- 
nification, 28— fern, from do., 29— 
common and doubtful, 30 — epicene, 
33— neuter, 34 — of 1st dec, 41 ; exc 
in, 42— of 2d dec, 46 •, exc. in, 49— 
of 3d dec, 58, 62, and 66 ; exc. in, 59 
-67— of 4th dec, 87; exc. in, 88— of 
5th dec, 90 ; exc. in, 90. 
Genitive, 37 — sing., 1st dec, exc. in, 43 ; 
of adjectives, 3d dec, 112 — plur., 1st 
dec, contracted, 43 ; 2d dec, do., 53 ; 
3d dec, 83 ; of adjectives, 3d dec, 
113 and 114— after nouns, 211— what 
relations it denotes, 211, R. 1 — sub- 
jective and objective, 211, R. 2 — of 
substantive pronouns, 211, R. 3 — pos- 
sessive adjective used for, 211, R. 4 

— dative used for, 211, R. 5 of 

character or quality, 211, R. 6 — noun 
limited by, omitted, 211, R. 7 ; want- 
ing, in the predicate after sum, 211, r. 
8; in other cases,211, r. 8,(4,)-(6,)- 
omitted,211,R.9 — howtranslated,211, 
r. 12 — after partitives, 212— after a 
neuter adjective or adj. pronoun, 212, 
r. 3— after adverbs, 212, r. 4 — after 
adjectives, 213 ; different constructions 
instead of, 213, r. 4 — after dignus and 
indignus, 244, r. 2 — after verbs, 214- 
220— after sum, and verbs of valuing, 
214 — of crime, 217 — after verbs of ad- 
monishing, 218 — after verbs denoting 
an affection of the mind, 220 — of place, 
221— after particles, 221, II., Til — 
plur. depending on a gerund, 275, R. 
1, (3,) — place of, after neuter adjec- 
tives, 279, 10. 
Genitives, two, limiting the same noun, 

211, r. 10. 
Gerundives, how used, 275, II. 
Gerunds, 148, 2 — by what cases follow- 
ed, 274— and gerundives, gen. of, 



316 



INDEX. 



275, r. 1 ; dat. of, 275, r. 2; ace. of, 

275, r. 3 ; abl. of, 275, r. 4 ; infill, for, 

after adj., 275, r. 2, (4.) 
G/onor, with abl., 245, III. 
(jlyconic verse, 316, IV. 
Golden age. 329, 2. 
Government defined, 203, 7. 
Grammatical, subject, 201 ; cases of, 

201, IV., 3— predicate, 202— figures, 

322. 
Greek nouns, gender of, 34, r. — 1st 

dec, 44 — 2d dec, 54 — ace of, in 3d 

dec, 80 — declension of, in do. ; 86. 



H. 

H, its nature, 2 — in prosody, 283. 
Habeo, &c, with perfect participles, 274, 

2, r. 4. 
Hellenism, 323, r. (2.) 
Hemistich, 304. 
Hendiadys,323,2, (3.) 
Hepthemimeris, 304, 5. 
Heroic caesura, 310, 4 and 5. 
Heteroclite nouns, 93. 
Heterogeneous nouns, 92. 
Heterosis, 323, 3, (2.) 
Hexameter verse, 310— Priapean, 310, 

Hiatus, 279, 18. 

Hie, declined, 134— and ille distinguish- 
ed, 207, r. 23. 

Hipponactic, trimeter, 314,11. — tetrame- 
ter, 314, IV. 

Homo and homines omitted, 209, R. 2. 

Homoeopropheron, 324, 26. 

Horace, key to the odes of, 321. 

Horatian metres, 320. 

Humi, construction of, 221, R. 3. 

Hypallage, 323, 4, (3.) 

Hyperbaton, 323, 4. 

Hyperb6le, 324, 5. 

Hvpercatalectic, or hypermeter verse, 
204. 

Hysteron proteron, 323, 4, (2.) 



1. 



I, sound of, 7 and 8 — nouns in, gender 
of, 66 ; gen. of, 68 — increment in, 3d 
dec, 287,3; plur., 288; of verbs, 290 
—final, quantity of, 296. 

Iambic, metre, 314 and 303 — trimeter, 
314, I. ; catalectic, 314, V.— tetrame- 
ter, 314, TIL ; catalectic, 314, IV.— 
dimeter, 314, VI. ; hvpermrter, 314, 
VII. ; acephalous, 314, VIII. ; cata- 
lectic, 314, IX. 

Iambico-dactylic metre, 318, II. 



Ibam, ibar, ibo, ibor, 162, 2. 

Icins, icus, His, and ius, adjectives in. 
128, 2. 

Jcius or itius, verbal adjectives in, 129, 5, 

Ictus, 308, 3. 

Idem, declined, 134, r. 6 — how used, 
207, r. 27— with dative, 222, r. 7— 
how otherwise construed, 222, r. 7. 

Ides, 326. 

Idiotism, 325, 6. 

Idus, adjectives in, 129, 2. 

Ies, adverbs in, 192, II., 3. 

Ii, in gen., contracted, 52. 

lie, nouns in, 100, 9. 

His, adjectives in, 129, 4. 

Me, declined, 134 — how used, 207, R. 24 
—with hie, 207, r. 23. 

JIlic, how declined, 134, r. 3. 

Im, in pres. subj., 162, 1 — adverbs in, 
192, 1, and II. 

Imoninm, nouns in, 100, 6— and imonia, 
verbals in, 102,3. 

Imperative, 143, 3 — its time, 145, r. 3— 
how used, 267. 

Imperfect tense, 145. II. 

Impersonal verbs, 184 — list of in2dconj., 
169 — their construction, 209, R. 3. 

In, government of, 235. (2.) 

Inceptive verbs, 187, II., 2— list of, 173. 

Increment, of nouns, 286 ; sing, num., 
287 ; plur. num, 288— of verbs, 289. 

Incrementum, 324, 22. 

Indeclinable, nouns, 94 — adjectives, 1 15, 
3. 

Indefinite, adjectives, 104 — pronouns, 
138— adverbs, 191, R. 4. 

Independent clauses, 203. 

Indicative mood, 143, 1 — its tenses, 145 
—how used, 259 — its tenses used one 
for another, 259. 

Indirect questions, subj. in, 265. 

Induo and exuo. construction of, in pass., 
234; in act., 251, r. 2. 

Inferiority, how denoted, 122. 

Infinitive, 143, 4 — its tenses, 145, r. 4 
—as a logical subject, 201, IV.— how 
modified, 202, III. — with subject-nom., 
209, R. 5— for gen., 213, r. 4— its sub- 
ject, 239 — construction and meaning 
of its tenses, 268 — subject of a verb, 
269 — depending on a verb, 270 ; on 
an adjective or noun, 270, R. 1— omit- 
ted, 270, r. 3 — without a subject, after 
what verbs used, 271 — with a subject, 
after what verbs used, 272 and 273 — 
how translated, 272, r. 3 — used like a 
noun. 273, n.— its place, 279, 11. 

Infit, 183, 14, and 180, N. 

Inflection, 25. 

Inquam, 183, 5 — its place in a sentence, 
279, 6. 



INDEX. 



317 



Instrument, abl. of, 247. 

Intensive, pronouns, 135 — verbs, 187, 

II. 5. 
Interdict), construction of, 251, r. 2. 
Interest. See Refcrt, 
Interjections. 199— with nom., 209, r. 

IS— withdat.,228.(3,J--withacc.,238, 

2 — with voc, 210 — O, heu, &lc, not 

elided. 305. 
Intermediate clauses, subj. in, 266. 
Interrogative, adjectives, 104 and 121 — 

pronouns, 137; when indefinite, 137, N. 
Inns, adjectives in, 128, 1, 2, and 6. 
To, verbals in, 102, 7. 
Ionic, metre, 317 and 303 — a majore, 317, 

I. — <a minor e, 317, II. 
Ipse, declined, 135' — how used, 207, r. 

23— used reflexively, 203, (4,)— with 

inter, 20S, (5.) 
Iri, with supine in urn, 276, II., R. 3. 
Iron a«-e, 329, 4. 
Irony/324, 4. 
Irregular, nouns, 92 — adjectives, 115— 

verbs, 178-182. 
Is, nouns in, gender of, 62 and 63; gen. 

of, 74 — final, quantity of, 301. 
Is, declined, 134— how used, 207, r. 26. 
Iste, how declined, 13-1 — how used, 207, 

R. 25. 
Istic and illic declined, 134, R. 3. 
Itas, ia, itia, ities, imonia, itudo, itus, 

and tus, abstracts in, 101. 
Iter, declined, 57 — with ace. of place, 

237, R. 1— increments of, 286, 2. 
Iter and er, adverbs in, 192, II. and IV. 
Itus, adverbs in, 192, I. and II. 
Item, verbals in, 102, 2. 

or ilium, nouns in, 100, 5. 

Ius, genitives in. how pronounced, 15— 

in what adjectives found, 107 — quan- 
tity of i in, 233, L, e. 4. 
Iv and itu, in 2d and 3d roots of 

verbs, 175. 



Jacto, with abl., 215, II. 

Jubeo, construction of, 223, R.2, (2,) and 

273, 2. 
Jugiim, quantity of its compounds, 283, 

Jupiter declined, 35. 
Jusjurandum declined, 91. 
Juvat, &c, ace. after, 229, R. 7. 



K. 

K, when used, 2. 

Key to the odes of Horace, 321. 

27* 



L. 



L, nouns in, gender of, 66 ; gen. of, 70 

— final, quantity of, 299. 
Lector, gaudeo, &c, with abl., 245, II. 
Latin grammar, its divisions, 1. 
Leading clause, subject and verb, 203, 3. 
Lentus, adjectives in, 128, 4. 
Letters, 2 — division of, 3 — sounds of, 

7 — numeral, 118, 7. 
Licet, with subjunctive, 263, 2. 
Liquids, 3. 
Litotes, 324, 9. 

Loading, verbs of, with abl., 249. 
Logical, subject, 201 — predicate, 202. 
Long syllable, 282, 2. 



M. 



M final, quantity of, 299, 2— elided, 305, 

2. 
Malo conjugated, 178, 3. 
Manner, adverbs of, 191, III. — abl. of, 

247 ; with prep. 247, r. 3. 
Masculine, nouns of 3d dec, 58 5 exc. 

in, 59-61 — caesura, 310, N. 1. 
Materfamilias declined, 91. 
Means, abl. of, 247 — ace. of, with prep., 

247, R. 4. 
Measure or metre, a, 303. 
Memini, 183, 3 — with gen. or ace. 216. 
Men or mentum, verbals in, 102, 4. 
Met, enclitic, 133, r. 2. 
Metalepsis, 324, 6. 

Metaphor, 324, 1.— Metaplasm, 322,1. 
Metathesis, 322. 
Metonymy, 324, 2. 
Metre, 303— how divided, 303— different 

kinds of, 310-317. 
Metres, compound, 318 — Horatian, 320. 
Meus, how declined, 139. 
Militice, construction of, 221, R. 2. 
Mille, its use, 118, 6. 
Mi/10 and minor, in obsolete imperatives, 

162, 5. 
Misceo, with abl., 245, II. 
Misereor, miseresco, &c, with gen., 215. 
Misfret, with gen., 215 — with ace, 229, 

R. 6. 

Modi, annexed to pronouns, 134, r. 5. 
Modified, subject, 201, III. ; itself modi- 

fied, 201, III., r. 6— predicate, 202, 

III. 
Modify or limit, in what sense used, 201 , 

II., R. 

Modb, with subjunctive,263, 2. 

Money, mode of reckoning, 327. 

Monocolon, 319. 

Monoptotes, 94. 

Monosyllables, in e, quantity of, 295, E. 



318 



INDEX. 



4 — in o, do. 297, e. 1 — their place, 
279, 8. 

Moods, 143. 

Motion or tendency, verbs of, their con- 
struction, 225, 4, and 237, r. 3. 

Mutes, 3 — and liquids in prosody, 283, 
IV., e. 2. 

Muto, with abl., 2*5, II. 



N. 



N, nouns in, gender of, 66 ; gen. of, 70 
and 71— final, quantity of, 299. 

Names of persons, order of, 279, 9. 

Nascor, with abl., 246, R. 1. 

Natus, &c, with abl., 246. 

Ne, with subj., 262 — omitted after cave, 
262, r. 6— after metuo, &c, 262, r. 7— 
with subj., denoting a command, &e, 
260, r. 6— with imperat., 267, R. 1— 
followed by quidem, 279, 3. 

Negatives, two, their force, 277, r. 3-5. 

Nemo, for nullus, 207, R. 31. 

Neoterism, 325, 3. 

Nequeo, how conjugated, 182, R. 3. 

Nequis, how declined, 138, 2. 

Neuter, nouns, 34; of 3d dec, 66) exc. 
in, 66 and 67 — adjectives and adj. pro- 
nouns, with gen., 212, r. 3; ace. of, 
with another ace. after active verbs, 
231, r. 5 — verbs, with ace, 232; with 
abl. of agent, 248, r.2 — passive verbs, 
142, r. 2 ; participles of, 162, 18. 

Neuter, how declined, 107 — use of, with 
gen., 212, r. 2, n. 1. 

Neutral passive verbs, 142, R. 3. 

Nitor, with abl., 245, II. 

Nolo conjugated, 178, 2. 

Nominative, 37 — construction of, 209 and 
210— after interjections, 209, R. 13— 
plural, 3d dec, 83; of adjectives, 3d 
dec, 113. See Subject-nominative and 
Predicate-nominative. 

Non. omitted after non modo,&ic, 277. R. 6. 

Nones, 326. 

Nostras, how declined, 139. 

Nostrum after partitives, 212, R. 2, n. 2. 

Nouns, 26-103 — proper, common, ab- 
stract, and collective, 26 — gender of, 
27-34— number of, 35— cases of, 36 
and 37— declension of, 38-40— of 3d 
dec, mode of declining, 55 — com- 
pound, 91 — irregular, 92 — variable, 92 
—defective, in case, 94; in number, 95 
and 96 — differing in meaning in dif- 
ferent numbers, 97 — redundant, 99 — 
verbal, 102— derivation of, 100-102— 
composition of, 103 — how modified, 
201, HI., r. 1— used as adjectives, 205, 

R. 11. 



Ns, participials and participles in, con- 
struction of, 213, r. 1 and 3. 

Number, of nouns, 35 — of verbs, 146. 

Numbers, cardinal, 117 and 118 — ordi- 
nal, 119 and 120— distributive, 119 
and 120. 

Numerals — adjectives, 104; classes of 
117 ; with gen., 212, r.2— letters, 118, 
7 — adverbs, 119 — multiplicative, 121 
—proportional, 121 — temporal, 121 — 
interrogative, 121. 

Nunquis, how declined, 137, r. 3. 



O. 



O, sound of, 7 and 8 — nouns in, gender 
of, 58 and 59 ; gen. of, 69 — adverbs 
in, 192 — increment in, 3d dec, 287, 3 ; 
plur., 288; of verbs, 290— final, quan- 
tity of, 297. 

O! si, with subjunctive, 263. 

Oblique cases, what, 37 — their place, 
279, 10 and 2. 

Obliviscor, with gen. or ace, 216. 

Object of an active verb, 229. 

Objective genitive, 211, r. 2 — dative 
used instead of, 211, r. 5. 

Octonarius. iambic, 314, III. 

Odi, 183, 1. 

Olli, for Mi, 134, r. 1. 

Omission, of ar in ^en. plur., 1st dec, 
43 — of i in gen. sing., 2d dec, 52 — of 
e in voc sing., 2d dec, 52 — of or in 
gen. plur., 2d dec, 53— of e, in gen. 
of nouns in ter and her, 71— of con- 
necting vowel, 150, 5 — of v, &c, is, 
iss, and sis, in second root, 162, 7 — of 
reduplication in compound verbs, 163, 
4, e. 1 — of pronoun in case of appo- 
sition, 204, r. 4 — of a noun to which 
an adj. belongs, 205, r. 7, and 252, r. 
3— of the antecedent, 206, (3) and (4) 
— of meus, &c, used reflexivelv, 207, 
R. 38— of nominative, 209, R. 2 and 3 
—of verb, 209, r. 4, and 229, R. 3- 
of a noun limited by gen., 211, R 8— 
of gen., 211, r. 9 — of a partitive, 212, 
r. 1, n. 3 — of subject ace, 239 and 
269, R. 1 — of ace after an active verb, 
229, r. 4— of prep. 232. (2.) 235, r.5, 
241, r. 4, and 248, r. 3— of voc, 240 
— of quam, 256 — of participle in abl. 
absolute, 257, r. 7— of ut with subj., 
262, r. 4— of ne after cave, 262, r, 6 
—of non after non modo, &c, 277, R. 
6 — of conjunctions, 278, r. 6— of j in 
composition, 307. 

Opus and iisus, with gen. and ace, 211, 
r. 11— with abl., 243— how used, 243, 

R.2. 



INDEX. 



319 



Or, nouns in, gender of, 58 and 61 ; 

genitive of, 70 and 71 — verbals in, 

102, 1. 
Oratio obllqua, 2G6, 1 and 2, and 273, 3 

—tenses of, 266, 2, r. 4. 
Order, adverbs of, 191, I. 
Ordinal numbers, 119 and 120. 
Orium, verbals in, 102, 8. 
Orthoepy, 6-23. 
Orthographv, 2-5. 
Os, nouns in, of 3d dec., gender of, 58 

and 61 ; gen. of, 75 — final, sound of, 

8, e. 3; quantity of, 300. 
Osus, adjectives in, 128, 4. 
Ovat, 183, 15. 
Oxymoron, 324, 28 



P. 



Parabola, 324, 30. 

Paradigms, of nouns, 1st dec., 41 ; 2d 
dec, 46 j 3d dec, 57; 4th dec, 87 ; 
5th dec, 90 — of adjectives, 1st and 2d 
dec, 105-107; 3d dec, 108-111— of 
verbs, sum, 153; 1st conj., 155 and 
156 ; 2d conj., 157; 3d conj., 158 and 
159; 4th conj., 160; deponent, 161; 
periphrastic conj., 162; defective, 183; 
impersonal, 184. 

Paragoge, 322. 

Paregmenon, 324., 24. 

Parelcon, 323, 2, (1.) 

Parenthesis, 323, 4, (6.) 

Paronomasia, 324, 25. 

Participial adjectives, 130. 

Participles. 148, 1 — in us, how declined, 
105 — in ns, do., Ill — of neuter verbs, 
162, 16— of deponent verbs, 162, 17— 
of neuter passive verbs, 162, 18 — in 
rus, gen. plur. of, 162, 19 — compound- 
ed with in, 162, 21 — when they be- 
come adjectives, 162, 22 — how modi- 
fied, 201, III., R. 3— agreement of, 205 ; 
with predicate-nom., instead of sub- 
ject, 205, R. 5 — perfect, denoting ori- 
gin, with abb, 246 — their government, 
274 — their time, how determined, 274, 
2 — their various significations, 274, 2 
and 3 — perfect, with habeo, &c, 274, 
2, R. 4 — for a verbal noun, 274, 2, R. 
5— for clauses, 274, 3. 

Particles, 190. 

Partitive adjectives, 104. 

Partitives, with plural verbs, 209, R. 11 
—gen. after, 212— omitted, 212, R. 2, 
B. 3— ace or abl. after, 212, r. 2, n. 
4. 

Parts of speech, 24. 

Passive voice, 141 — with latter of two 
ace, 234— construction of, 234. 



Patrial, nouns, 100, 2— adjectives, 104— 
pronouns, 139. 

Patronymics, 100— quantity of their pe- 
nult, 291, 4 and 5. 

Pentameter verse, 311. 

Pentaptotes, 94. 

Penthemimeris, 304, 5. 

Penult, 13 — quantity of, 291 j of proper 
names, 293. 

Perfect tense, 145, IV. 

Perfects of two syllables, quantity of, 
284, E. 1. 

Period defined, 280. 

Periphrasis, 323, 2, (4.) 

Periphrastic conjugations, 162,14 and 15. 

Personal terminations of verbs, 147, 3. 

Personification, 324, 34. 

Persons of verbs, 147— with nominatives 
of different persons, 209, R. 12, (7.) 

Phalaecian verse, 315, III. 

Pherecratic verse, 316, V. 

Piget , with gen., 215 — with ace, 229, R. 
6. 

Place, adverbs of, 191, I.— gen. of, 221 
—ace of, 237 ; dat. for, 237, R. 3— 
where, abl. of, 254— whence, abl. of, 
255. 

Plenty or want, adj. of, with abl., 250. 

Pleonasm, 323, 2. 

Pluperfect tense, 145, V. 

Plural nouns used for singulars, 98. 

Plus declined, 110. 

Pcemtet, with gen., 215 — with ace, 229, 

R.6. 

Polyptoton, 324, 23. 

Polysyndeton, 323, 2, (2.) 

Position in prosody, 283, IV. 

Positive degree, 123. 

Possessive, adjectives, 104— pronouns, 
139; how used, 207, r. 36; when 
reflexive, omission of, 207, R. 36; 
used for subjective and possessive 
gen., 211, r. 3; mea, tua, &e, after 
refert and interest, 219, r. 1. 

Possum conjugated, 154, 6. 

Post, how pronounced, 8, E. 4. 

Potior, with abl., 245 — with gen., 220, 
(4.) 

Prce in composition, its quantity, 283, 

II., E. 1. 

Prceditus, with abl., 244. 

Predicate of a proposition, 200 and 202. 

Predicate-nominative, 210 — differing in 
number from the subject-nominative, 
210, r. 2— after what verbs, 210, R. 3 
and 4. 

Predicate-accusative, 210— dative, 210. 

Prepositional adjectives, 130. 

Prepositions, 195-197 — in composition, 
196 ; force of, 197; change of, 103, 5 
— inseparable, 197 — with an ace, 195 



320 



INDEX. 



and 235— with an abl., 195 and 241— 
wnh an ace. and abl., 195, and 235, 
(2)-(5)— how modified, 201, III., R. 
5 — verbs compounded with, with da- 
tive, 224; with ace, 233; with abl., 
242— omitted, 232, (2,) 235, r. 5, and 
241, R. 4 — their place, 279, 10 — quan- 
tity of di, se, and red, 285, R. 2 and 3. 

Present tense, 145, I. 

Preteritive verbs, 183, 1. 

Priapean verse, 310, II. 

Price, ablative of, 252 — expressed by 
tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, 252. 

Primus, medius, &e, signification of, 
205, r. 17— their place, 279, 7. 

Priusquam, by what mood followed, 263, 
3. 

Pro, in composition, quantity of, 285, 
E. 5. 

Procul, with abl., 241, r. 2. 

Prolepsis, 323, 1, (4.) 

Pronouns, 132-139— simple, 132— neuter 
with gen., 212, r. 3, n. 1. 

Proper nouns, 26. 

Propior and proanmus, with ace, 222, 

R.5. 

Proposition, 200 — analysis of, 281. 

Prosody, 1, and 282-321— figures of, 
305-307. 

Prosopopoeia, 324, 34. 

Prosthesis, 322. 

Prosum, 154, 5. 

Protasis and apodosis, 261. 

Pte, enclitic, 133, R. 2, and 139. 

Pudet, with gen., 215 — with ace, 229, 
r. 6. 

Punctuation, 5. 

Punishment, words denoting, construc- 
tion of, 217, R. 3. 

Purpose denoted, by ut with subj., 262 
— by participles, 274, 2, r. 2, 6 and 7 
— byinfin., 271 — by gerund, 275, R. 
2 — ttv supine in um, 276, II. 



Q. 



Qucbso, 183, 7. 

Quality, adverbs of, 191, III. 

Quam, with the superlative, 127 — omit- 
ted after plus, minus, amplius, &c, 
256, r. 6 and 7. 

Quamvis, with the subj., 263, 2. 

Quantity, adjectives of, with gen., 212, 
R. 3, n. 1 ; after sum and verbs of 
valuing, 214 — adverbs of, with gen., 
212, r. 4. 

Quantity, marks of, 5 — in orthoepy, 13 — 
in prosody, 282, 1 — general rules of, 
283 — special rules of, 284 — of penults, 
291— of antepenults, 292— of penults 



of proper names, 293 — of final sylla- 
bles, 294. 
Quasi, with subj., 263, 2. 
Queo, how conjugated, 182, R. 3. 
Qui, declined, 136 — interrogative, 137 

— person of, 209, R. 6— with subjunc- 
tive, 264. 
Quicunque, how declined, 136, r. 2 — 

how used, 207, R. 29. 
Quidam, how declined, 133, 5 — how 

used, 207, R. 33. 
Quidem, place of, 279, 3. 
Quilibet, how declined, 133, 5 — how 

used, 207, r. 34. 
Quin, with subj., 262 and ib., r. 10. 
Quis, declined, 137 — and qui, for aliquis, 

&e, 137, R. (c.) 
Quisnam, quinam, how declined, 137, 2. 
Quispiam, how declined, 138, 3 — how 

used, 207, r. 30. 
Quisquam, how declined, 138, 3 — how 

used, 207, r. 31. 
Quisque, how declined, 138, 3 — how 

used, 207, r. 35— its place, 279, 14. 
Quisquis declined, 136, R. 2. 
Quivis, how declined, 133, 5 — how used, 

207, R. 34. 
Quo and quominus, with subjunctive, 262 

and ib., r. 9. 
Quoad, with subj., 263, 4. 
Quod referring to a preceding statement, 

206, (14.) 
Quoque, place of, 279, 3. 



R. 

R final, quantity of, 299. 

Reapse, 135, r. 3. 

Recordor and reminiscor, with gen. or 
ace, 216. 

Reckoning, Roman mode of. 326 and 
327. 

Redundant, nouns, 99 — adjectives, 116 
— verbs, 185. 

Reduplication, 163, r. — quantity of, 284, 
e. 2. 

Refert and interest, with gen., 214 and 
219 — with the adj. pronouns mea, &c, 
219, R. 1. 

Reflexive pronouns, 139, R. 2 — how 
used, 208— for demonstratives, 208, 
(6,) — omitted, 229, R. 3 — in oratio ob- 
liqua, 266, R. 3. 

Relative pronouns, 136. 

Relatives, agreement of, 206— omitted, 
206, (5.) — in the case of the antece- 
dent, 206, (6,) — referring-, to nouns of 
different genders, 206, (9 ;) to a prop- 
osition, 206, (13,) — agreeing with a 
noun implied, 206, (11,) — adjectives, 



INDEX. 



321 



construction of, 206, (16,)— with sub- 
junctive, 264— their place, 279, 13. 

Responsives, case of, 204, r. 11. 

Respublica declined, 91. 

Rhetoric, figures of, 324. 

Rhythm, 308. 

Rimus and ritis, quantity of, 290, E. 
(I.) 4. 

Root of words inflected, 40, 10. 

Roots of verbs, 150, 1 — special, 150, 2 
— second and third, how formed, 
150, 3 — first, its derivatives, 151, 1 ; 
second, do., 151, 2; third, do., 151, 3 
— second and third, formation of, 1st 
conj., 164-166; 2d conj., 167-170 ; 3d 
conj., 171-174 ; 4th conj., 175-177— 
second and third irregular, 1st conj., 
165; 2d conj., 168; 4th conj., 176. 

Rus, how construed, in ace., 237, r. 4— 
in at/.., 254 and 255. 

Rus, participle in, its signification, 162, 
14, and 274, 2, r. 6. 



8, sound of, 1L — preceded by a conso- 
nant, nouns in, gender of, 62 and 64 ; 
gen. of, 77— final, elided, 305, 2. 

Salve, 183, 9. 

Sapphic verse, 315, II. 

Satago, with gen., 215, (2.) 

Satis, bene, and male, verbs compound- 
ed with, with dat., 225. 

Scanning, 304, 6. 

Scazon, 314, II. 

Se with inter, 208, (5.) 

Senarius, iambic, 314. 

Sentences, 203— analysis of, 281. 

Sentiments of another in dependent 
clauses, by what mood expressed, 
266, 3. 

Separating, verbs of, with abl. 251. 

Sere, future infin. in, 162, 10. 

Sestertius, its value, 327 — how denoted, 
327 — mode of reckoning, 327. 

Short syllable, 282, 2. 

Silver age, 329, 3. 

Simile, 324, 30. 

Simple, subject, 201, II. — predicate, 
202, II.— sentences, 203. 

Sirmd, with abl., 241, R. 2. 

Siquis, how declined, 138, 2. 

Sis, for si vis, 183, R. 3. 

So and sim, ancient forms of tenses in, 
162, 8. 

Sodes, for si audcs, 183, R. 3. 

Solecism, 325, 2. 

Soleo, how conjugated, 142 ?l R. 2. 

Solus, how declined, 107— with relative 
andsubj.,264. 10 



Sotadic verse, 317, 1. 

Space, ace. of, 236. 

Spondaic, verse, 310 — tetrameter, 312. 

Stanza, 319. 

Sto, with abl., 245, II. 

Strophe, 319. 

Sub, in composition, force of, 122 — gov- 
ernment of, 235, (2.) 

Subject, of a verb, 140— of a proposition, 
200 and 201 j modified, 201,111.3 ^ 
place in a sentence, 279, 2. 

Subject-nominative, 209 — when omitted, 
209, R. 1 and 2— when wanting, 209, 
R. 3 — with infinitive, 209, R.5-— two 
or more with plural verb, 209, R. 12; 
with sing, verb, 209, R. 12. 

Subject-accusative, 239— when omitted, 
239. 

Subjective genitive, 211, R. 2 — posses- 
sive pronoun used for, 211, r. 3. 

Subjunctive, 143, 2 — its tenses, 145, R. 
2— how used, 259— its tenses, various 
uses of, 259 — for imperative, 260, R. 
6 — in conditional clauses, 261 — after 
particles, 262 and 263— after qui, 264 
— in indirect questions, 265 — in inter- 
mediate clauses, 266 — in oratio obll- 
qua, 266, 1 and 2— after what verbs 
used, 273. 

Substantive pronouns, 132, 133— as sub- 
ject-nom., omitted, 209, R. 1— dative 
of, redundant, 228, N. 

Subter, government of, 235, (4.) 

Sui, declined, 133— use of, 208. 

Sultis, for si vultis, 183, R. 3. 

Sum, conjugated, 153— compounds of, 
do., 154, 5 and 6 — with a gen. in ex- 
pressions denoting part, property, du- 
ty, &c, 211, r. 8, (3,) and 275, R. 1, 
(5,)— .denoting degree of estimation, 
214 — with two datives, 227 — with abl. 
of situation, 245, III. — with abl. deno- 
ting in respect to, 250, R. 3. 

Super, government of, 235, (3.) 

Superiority, how denoted, 123. 

Superlative degree, 123— formation of, 
124— with quisque, 207, R. 35 — with 
gen., 212, r. 2, and r. 4, N. 7. 

Supines, 148, 3 — few in number, 162, 11 
— in um, by what cases followed, 276 , 
on what verbs they depend, 276, Hi ; 
with eo, 276, II., R. 2 and 3— in u, 
with what adjectives used, 276, III. ; 
after/as, nefas, and opus,%16, I1I.,R. 
2— of two syllables, quantity of, 284, 

E. 1. 

Suus, use of, 208- — referring to a word 
in the predicate, 208, (7,) — for hujus, 
when a noun is omitted. 208, (7,\— 
denoting fit, &c, 208. 

Syllabication. 17-23. 



322 



INDEX. 



Syllables, quantity of first and middle, 
284 ; of penult, 291; of antepenult, 
292} of final, 294. 

Syllepsis, 323, 1, (3.) 

Sympl6ce, 324, 15. 

Synaeresis, 306. 

Synaloepha, 305. 

Synapheia, 307, 2. 

Synchysis, 323, 4, (4.) 

Sync6pe, 322. 

Synecdbche, 234, II., 323, 1, (5 ; ) and 
324, 3. 

Synesis, or synthesis, 323, 3, (4.) 

Synonymia, 324, 29. 

Synopsis of Horatian metres, 320. 

Syntax, 1, and 200-281. 

Systdle, 307. 



T. 



T, sound of, 12— nouns in, gender of, 66 ; 
gen. of, 78— final, quantity of, 299. 

Toedet, with gen., 215 — with ace., 229, 
R. 6. 

Talent, value of, 327. 

Tanquam, with subj.. 263, 2. 

Tanti, quanti, &c, denoting price, 252. 

Tantum, with eren. plur. and plural verb, 
209, r. 11. V V 

Tautology, 325, 4. 

Te, enclitic, 133, R. 2. 

Tenses, 144 — connection of, 258 — simi- 
lar and dissimilar, 258, I. and II. — of 
indicative mood, used one for another, 
259 ; future for imperative, 259 ; used 
for subj. in apodosis, 259, R. 4— of 
subi. mood, their use, 260, I., R. 1, 
and II., r. 1 — in protasis and apodo- 
sis, 261— of infin. mood, use of, 268. 

Tenus, with gen., 221, III.— with abl., 
241, r. 1— place of, 279, 10. 

Terminations, of words inflected, 40— 
of nouns, 1st dec, 41 ; 2d dee, 4b ; 3d 
dec, 55; 4th dec, 87; 5th dec, 90— 
personal, of verbs, 147, 3 — verbal, 150 
«—table of verbal, 152. 

Tetrameter, apriore, 312— -a posterior 'e, 
312. 

Tetraptotes, 94. 

TetrastrSphon, 319. 

That, sign of what moods, 273. 

Thesis, 308. 

Time, adverbs of, 191, II.— ace of, 236 
— abl. of, 253— expressed by id, with 
a gen., 253, r. 3— mode of reckoning, 
326 ; table of, 326, 6. 

Tmesis, 323, 4, (5.) 

Tor and trix, verbals in, 102, 6. 

Towns, names of, construction of; see 
Place. 



Tricolon, 319. 

Triemimeris, 304, 5. 

Trimeter catalectic, 312, VII. 

Triptotes, 94. 

Tristrbphon, 319. 

Trochaic or feminine caesura, 310, N. 1. 

Trochaic, metre, 315 and 303 — tetrameter 

catalectic, 315 dimeter catalectic, 

315, IV. 
Tropes, 324. 
Tu declined, 133. 
Tus, adjectives in, 128, 7. 



U. 

U, sound of, 7 and 8 — in gen. and voc 
of Greek nouns, 54 — dative in, 89 — 
increment in, 3d dec, 287, 3; plur., 
288; of verbs, 290— final, quantity of, 
298. 

?7and itu,\n 2d and 3d roots of verbs, 167. 

Ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., 89, 5. 

Ullus, how declined, 107 — how used, 
207, r. 31. 

Ulum, verbals in, 102, 5. 

Urn, adverbs in, 192, II. 

Undus, participles in, 162, 20. 

Unus, declined, 107 — et alter, with verbs 
singular, 209, R. 12 — with relative and 
subj., 264, 10. 

Unusquisque, how declined, 133, 4. 

Ur, nouns in, erender of, 66 and 67 ; gen. 
of, 70 and 71. 

Ura, verbals in, 102, 7. 

Us, nouns in, of 3d dec, gender of, 66 
and 67; gen. of, 76— verbals in, 102, 7 
— final quantity of, 301. 

Usque, with ace, 235, r. 3. 

Us-us ; see Opus. 

Ut, with subjunctive, 262 — its correla- 
tives, 262, r. 1— omitted, 262, r. 4 — 
alter metuo, &c, its meaning, 262, 
R. 7. 

Utsi, with subj., 263, 2. 

Uter, how declined, 107 — use of with 

gen., 212, r. 2, y. 1. 
Utlnam and uti, with subj., 263. 
Utor, fruor, &c, with abl., 245 — with 

ace, 245, I., r. 1. 



V. 

V changed to u, 163,2. 

Valeo, with ace, 252, r. 4. 

Valuing, verbs of, with gen., 214. 

Vapulo, 142, r. 3. 

Variable nouns, 92. 

Velut si, and veluti, with subj., 263, 2. 

Veneo, 142, R.3. 



INDEX. 



323 



Verbals, nouns, 102; with ace, 233, n. 
— adjectives, 129. 

Verbs, 140-189— subject of, 140— active, 
141 — neuter, 142 — neuter passive, 142, 
R. 2 — neutral passive, 142, R. 3— de- 
ponent, 142, R. 4 — transitive and in- 
transitive, 142, n. — principal parts of, 
151, 4 — neuter, participles of, 162, 16 
— inceptive, 173 — desiderative, 187, 
II., 3, and 176, n.— irregular, 178-182 
— defective, 183 — redundant, 185 and 
186— derivation of, 187 — composition 
of, 188 — changes of, in composition, 
189 — compounds from simples not in 
use, 189, N. 4 — agreement of, 209 — 
omitted, 209, R. I — with qui, person 
of, 209, r.6 — agreeing with predicate- 
nom.,209, R. 9 — with collective nouns, 
209, R. 11 — plural, after two or more 
nominatives, 209, R. 12 ; after a nom- 
inative, with cum and abl., 209, R. 12 ; 
after nominatives connected by aut, 
209, R. 12 — their place in a sentence, 
279, 2 ; in a period, 280. 

Verses, 304 — combinations of, in poems, 
319. 

Versification, 302. 

Versus, with ace, 235, r. 3 — place of, 
279, 10. 

Vescor, with abl., 245. 

Vestr&m, after partitives, 212, R. 2, N. 2. 

Vir, how declined, 48. 

Vis declined, 85. 

Vivo, with abl., 245, II. 

Vocative, 37— of proper names in ius, 
how pronounced, 14 j how formed, 52 
— sing. 3d dec., 81 — construction of, 
240. 



Voices, 141. 

Volo conjugated, 178. 

Vowel, before a mute and liquid, its 
quantity, 13, and 283, IV., e. 2— be- 
fore another vowel, quantity of, 283, 
I. ; in Greek words, 283, e. 6— before 
two consonants, 283, IV. — ending first 
part of a compound, quantity of, 285, 
R. 4. 

Vowels, sounds of, 7 and 8. 



W. 

Words, division of, 17-23 — arrangement 

of, 279 
Writers in different ages, 329. 



X. 

X, sound of, 12 — nouns in, gender of, 
62 and 65 } gen. of, 78. 



Y. 



Y, sound of, 7, R. 2 — nouns in, gender 
of, 62 ; gen. of, 77— increment in, 3d 
dec, 287, 3— final, quantity of, 298. 

Ys final, quantity of, 301. 



Zeugma, 323, 1, (2.) 



THE END. 



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